Physical and Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood Chapter 9: Physical and Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood

IN THIS CHAPTER Physical Changes Cognitive Changes Schooling Children with Special Needs

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 9.1  What kinds of physical changes occur during middle childhood? 9.2  In what ways does the brain change during these years? 9.3  What are the three most important health hazards for 6- to 12-year-olds? 9.4  How do vocabulary and other aspects of language change during middle childhood? 9.5  What cognitive advantages do children gain as they move through Piaget’s concrete operational stage? 9.6 What is horizontal decalage, and how does Siegler explain concrete operational thinking? 9.7 How do children’s information-processing skills improve during middle childhood?

LEARNING OBJECTIVES (con’t) 9.8  What should be included in an effective literacy curriculum? 9.9  How do bilingual and ESL approaches to second-language instruction differ? 9.10 Why do schools administer achievement tests, and what kinds of items do they include? 9.11 What kinds of group differences in achievement have educational researchers found? 9.12 Why is the term learning disability controversial? 9.13 How does attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder affect a child’s development?

PHYSICAL CHANGES Growth and Motor Development from 6 to 12 General Growth Large muscle coordination Fine motor control Eye–hand coordination improvement How did you grow during middle childhood? Grow two to three inches and add six pounds a year Increased large-muscle coordination Better hand–eye coordination Significant gains in fine motor control Girls by age 12: 94 percent of adult height attained Boys by age 12: 84 percent of adult height attained

PHYSICAL CHANGES Growth and Motor Development from 6 to 12 Gender Differences Girls Faster in overall growth rate Slightly more fat and less muscle Better coordination Boys Faster and stronger Grow two to three inches and add six pounds a year Increased large-muscle coordination Better hand–eye coordination Significant gains in fine motor control Girls by age 12: 94 percent of adult height attained Boys by age 12: 84 percent of adult height attained

THE BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM Major Middle Childhood Growth Spurts From six to eight years of age: increases in the sensory and motor cortex From 10 to 12 years of age: frontal lobes and cerebral cortex add synapses From six to eight years of age Increases in the sensory and motor cortex Linked to improvements in hand–eye coordination Fine motor skills From 10 to 12 years of age Frontal lobes and cerebral cortex add synapses Associated with gains in logic and planning Better myelinization of frontal lobes and reticular formation are important. The ability to pay attention is essential to allow the child to take advantage of improvements in frontal lobe functions. Selective attention – the ability to focus cognitive activity on the important elements of a problem or situation.

THE BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM Myelinization continuation Frontal lobes and reticular formation links Associational area neurons THE BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM Frontal lobes and reticular formation links improve. 12-year-olds develop selective, focused attention. Associational area neurons Sensory, motor, and intellectual functions are linked. Contributes to increases in information-processing speed

COGNITIVE CHANGES The Brain and Nervous System Spatial Perception Lateralization Improves learning math concepts and problem solving Spatial Cognition Ability to infer rules from and make predictions about movements of objects in space Spatial perception lateralization Helps with activities such as map reading Improves learning math concepts and problem solving Spatial cognition Ability to infer rules from and make predictions about movements of objects in space Includes left–right orientation Affected by visual experiences

COGNITIVE CHANGES Health and Wellness Rate and Type of Injury Change with Age Head injuries Motor vehicles and bicycles Traumatic brain injuries (TBI) Definition Reduced by helmet usage Traumatic brain injury (TBI): injury to the head that results in diminished brain function such as a loss of consciousness, confusion, or drowsiness, among school-aged children Rate and type of injury changes with age Head injuries Motor vehicles and bicycles The majority of children recover fully

COGNITIVE CHANGES Health and Wellness Asthma: chronic disease that causes airways to become sore and swollen Causes Allergens, irritants, weather, exercise, infections Consequences Most frequent cause of school absence Asthma appears around ages 5–7; it is responsible for more than 11 million school absences each year in U.S. Education is the first defense, followed by daily medication. As children grow and their lung capacity increases, asthma attacks lessen. Half of children continue with problems throughout life.

HEALTH AND WELLNESS Obesity Obesity: excess body fat that has adverse effects on health It is the most serious long-term health risk of middle childhood, affecting nearly 1 in 5 children. Classifications: obese, severely obese, overweight Associated with adult obesity Let’s look at the prevalence of overweight children over time. Most serious long-term health risk of middle childhood Nearly one in five children are obese Use of BMI (body mass index) for age Associated with adult obesity Requires special diets and increased exercise to lose weight

PREVALENCE OF OBESITY AMONG 6- TO 11-YEAR-OLDS IN THE UNITED STATES Figure 9.1 (p. 216): The prevalence of obesity (BMI > 95th percentile) has increased dramatically in the United States over the past 50 years. (Source: NCHS, 2007; Fryar, Carroll, & Ogden, 2012.) The prevalence of obesity in U.S. has grown at an alarming rate over the last five decades.

RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH CHILDHOOD OBESITY Figure 9.1 (p. 216)

COGNITIVE CHANGES Language During the school-aged years, children . . . Demonstrate improved grammar skills and pronunciation. Engage in conversation with many ages. Increase their vocabulary, especially derived words. During the school-aged years, children . . . Become skilled at managing finer points of grammar. Able to engage in conversation with many ages. Increase their vocabulary, especially derived words. Increase of 5000–10,000 words per year! Use different tenses to describe past experiences. Add new vocabulary at a rate of 5,000 to 10,000 words a year. Derived words: words that have a basic root to which some prefix or suffix is added, such as happily or unwanted.

COGNITIVE CHANGES Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage Concrete operational stage: able to think logically about concrete concepts, but have difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts School-aged children: Understand rules that govern physical reality. Distinguish between appearance and reality. Utilize a set of powerful schemas. Can easily solve conservation tasks Construction of schemes that enable children to think logically Decentration: taking multiple variables into account Reversibility: mentally undoing a physical or mental transformation Inductive logic Moving from personal experience to a general principles Good at manipulating things that can be seen and touched

AN EXAMPLE OF CONCRETE OPERATIONAL THINKING Figure 9.2 (p. 218) Ask: What aspects of concrete operational thought do you find in this fifth graders response to a hypothetical premise?

COGNITIVE CHANGES Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage Do you know what powerful schema school-aged children use? Decentration Reversibility Inductive logic Deductive logic Decentration: thinking that takes multiple variations into accounts Reversibility: the ability to mentally undo some kind of physical or mental transformation

PIAGET’S CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE Direct Tests of Piaget’s View Horizontal decalage: applying new thinking to all kinds of problems Conservation: the ability to logically determine that a certain quantity remains the same despite adjustments to its container, shape, or apparent size Let’s see how children perform on tests of conservation. Conservation of mass (seven years) Conservation of weight (eight years) Conservation of volume (nine years) Example of Siegler’s concepts of rules Balance scale: Figure 9.4 (p. 219) Rule 1: preoperational rule; taking into account only one dimension. Rule 2: transitional rule; child still judges on the basis of number, except when the same number of weights appears on each side—in that case, the child takes the distance from the fulcrum into account. Rule 3: concrete operational rule; the child tries to take both distance and weight into account simultaneously—but when the information is conflicting, the child simply guesses. Rule 4: understanding the actual formula for calculating the combined effect of weight and distance for each side of the balance—formal operations thinking.

WITHIN-STAGE DEVELOPMENT IN CONCRETE OPERATIONS Figure 9.3 (p. 219): Children got better in all five tasks over the three-year period. What else do you see? In this classic longitudinal study, children were given the same set of concrete operational tasks five times, beginning in kindergarten and ending in third grade. (Source: Tomlinson-Keasey et al., 1979, adapted from Table 2, p. 1158.)

DIRECT TESTS OF PIAGET’S VIEW Concrete Operations as Rules for Problem Solving Siegler Cognitive development consists of acquiring a set of basic rules applied to broader ranges of problems. Movement from one rule to the next requires experience. This approach is a cross between Piaget’s theory and the information-processing theory.

SIEGLER’S BALANCE TASK Figure 9.4 (p. 219): This balance scale is similar to what Siegler used in his experiments. Rule 1: preoperational rule; taking into account only one dimension. Rule 2: transitional rule; child still judges on the basis of number, except when the same number of weights appears on each side—in that case, the child takes the distance from the fulcrum into account. Rule 3: concrete operational rule; the child tries to take both distance and weight into account simultaneously—but when the information is conflicting, the child simply guesses. Rule 4: understanding the actual formula for calculating the combined effect of weight and distance for each side of the balance—formal operations thinking.

ADVANCES IN INFORMATION PROCESSING SKILLS Processing Efficiency Processing efficiency: the ability to make efficient use of short-term memory capacity Major component of cognitive growth Increases speed of cognitive processing Change validated with cross-cultural research

ADVANCES IN INFORMATION PROCESSING SKILLS Automaticity Automaticity: the ability to recall information from long-term memory without using short-term memory capacity Frees up short-term memory space for more complex processing Achieved primarily through practice Elementary school children who have automatized basic math facts learn complex computational skills more rapidly.

ADVANCES IN INFORMATION PROCESSING SKILLS Executive and Strategic Processes Executive processes: information-processing skills allowing a person to devise and carry out alternative strategies for remembering and problem solving Metacognition: “thinking about thinking” Memory strategies See Table 9.2 (p. 221) for more information related to common IP strategies used in remembering.

ADVANCES IN INFORMATION PROCESSING SKILLS Expertise Expertise: the amount of information possessed improves information processing Categorize information in complex and hierarchical ways Stirs capacity for creativity Chi research Michelene Chi: expert chess players can remember the placement of chess pieces on a board more quickly and accurately than novice chess players can—even when the experts were children and the novices were adults.

SOME COMMON INFORMATION-PROCESSING Strategies Used in Remembering Table 9.2 (p. 221)

SCHOOLING Overview Every society seeks ways of teaching children the skills needed in adulthood. In the U.S., formal education is one of most important influences on cognitive development in middle childhood.

SCHOOLING Literacy: ability to read and write Phonological awareness A balanced approach utilizes systematic and explicit phonics instruction. Sound–symbol connections and explicit language mechanics instruction Curriculum flexibility Phonological awareness increases. Readers benefit from specific instruction. Automaticity of identifying sound–symbol combinations helps. Balanced approach includes Guided Reading Poor readers Have problems with sound-letter combinations Benefit from highly specific phonics approaches May need multiple teaching approaches to help catch up

SECOND-LANGUAGE LEARNERS Limited English proficient (LEP): Limited ability to read, write, speak, or understand English English language learners (ELL): Limited English proficiency prevents full participation in regular education classes. The number of school-aged children who speak a language other than English at home increased from 2.5 million in 1991 to just over 11 million in 2009. Some participate in bilingual education—instruction given in two languages. English-as-a-second-language programs (ESL) Children spend part of the day in classes to learn English. Using a home-component helps. Helps support children’s home language and culture Providing a transition to English-only classrooms helps LEP students.

SECOND-LANGUAGE LEARNERS Programs and Services Provided Bilingual education ESL Home-school programs No single approach is most successful. Any structured program is better than submersion. Eventual transition to an English-only program is necessary. Some participate in bilingual education—instruction given in two languages. English-as-a-second-language programs (ESL) Children spend part of the day in classes to learn English. Using a home-component helps. Helps support children’s home language and culture Providing a transition to English-only classrooms helps LEP students.

ACHIEVEMENT AND INTELLIGENCE TESTS Standardized tests: individual performance is determined by comparing a student’s score to an average score obtained from a large sample of similar individuals. Kinds of Tests Achievement tests Paper and pencil intelligence tests Achievement tests Designed to assess specific information learned in school Some critics suggest that portfolios of children’s school work are a better indicator of actual school learning. Paper and pencil intelligence tests Required by most U.S. school districts Often result in misclassification of minority students Strongly correlated with achievement test scores

YES OR NO? IQ tests should be used as the primary or only criterion for placing children in educational programs. Discuss opinions.

SCHOOLING Achievement and Intelligence Tests Multiple Intelligences: Howard Gardner Triarchic Theory: Robert Sternberg Emotional Intelligence: Daniel Goleman Multiple Intelligences: Howard Gardner Intuitively appealing, but the theory has little empirical support. Triarchic Theory: Robert Sternberg Contextual intelligence Experiential intelligence Componential intelligence Emotional Intelligence: Daniel Goleman Children’s control over emotions in early childhood is strongly related to academic achievement. Howard Gardner Linguistics: using language effectively Logical-mathematical: numbers and logical problem solving Musical: appreciation and production of music Spatial: works of art and paintings Bodily kinesthetic: the ability to move in a coordinated way Naturalist: fine discriminations among plants and animals Interpersonal: sensitivity to the moods, behaviors, and needs of others Intrapersonal: the ability to understand oneself Robert Sternberg Contextual intelligence: knowing the right behavior for a particular situation Experiential intelligence: measured by IQ tests; how familiar a child is with the school culture Componential intelligence: a person’s ability to come up with specific strategies Emotional Intelligence Awareness of one’s own emotions The ability to express one’s emotions appropriately The capacity to channel emotions into the pursuit of worthwhile goals

IQ TESTING IN THE SCHOOLS Should IQ tests be used routinely to group elementary school children for instruction? No IQ tests do not measure all facets of relevant functioning. IQ scores may create self-fulfilling prophecy. Tests are often biased. Culturally reduced tests/culture-fair tests Yes/Maybe IQ testing aids in qualification for special classes. IQ tests are more reliable than teaching rating and other alternatives.

You Decide Decide which of these two statements you most agree with and think about how you would defend your position: IQ testing should be considered only when child has demonstrated some kind of difficulty with learning or appears to be exceptionally bright. Using routine IQ testing as a means of screening children for possible learning problems and for identifying gifted children is a good idea and ought to be continued.

SCHOOLING Group Differences in Achievement Sex Differences There are no consistent differences between boys and girls on total IQ or achievement test scores. Differences are shaped by the interaction between biology and environmental factors. There are no consistent differences between boys and girls on total IQ or achievement test scores. Girls perform slightly better on verbal tasks. Boys perform slightly better on numerical reasoning. Differences are shaped by environmental factors. Parent and teacher assumptions about skills Children internalize the beliefs of others. By high school, differences in standardized math tests are apparent.

SCHOOLING Group Differences in Achievement Ethnic Differences Problems associated with economic status; access to prenatal care; family stability Style Differences Analytic Relational Ethnic differences Problems associated with economic status; access to prenatal care; family stability Style differences Analytic Define learning goals and follow orderly steps to reach them Relational Focus attention on the “big picture” instead of individual bits of information Higher percentage Asian-American and European-American children are analytic More African-American, Hispanic, and Native American children are relational Lack of good cultural fit may cause school problems

SCHOOLING Cross-Cultural Differences in Achievement U.S. children are significantly behind their industrialized nation peers in math and science. North American parents emphasize innate ability; Asians emphasize hard work. Teaching methods vary. Studies may be measuring surface rather than subtle variations. U.S. children are significantly behind their industrialized nation peers in math and science. Underlying cognitive processes are similar. North American parents emphasize innate ability; Asians emphasize hard work. Teaching methods vary. Asian teachers emphasize “master lessons” around a single theme. Asians emphasize computational fluency. Americans may undermine intrinsic motivation by poor use of reward systems. Asian teachers have devised particularly effective modes of teaching math and sciences, according to research done by Stigler and Stevenson. Japanese and Chinese craft master lessons organized around a single theme and involving specific forms of student participation. Americans spend less time on one topic, often shifting from one concept to the next within the same lesson. Computational fluency: the degree to which an individual can automatically produce solutions to simple calculation problems So the differences may be related to variations in cultural beliefs and teaching methods.

Stereotype Threat: the subtle sense of pressure members of a particular group feel when they are attempting to perform well in area in which their group is characterized by negative stereotype Can influence performance on cognitive tests Results in greater impact on adults than children The importance of stereotype threat might be misinterpreted; ethnic group differences may or may not disappear.

Critical Analysis If discussion of group differences in intelligence-test scores contributes to racial prejudice, do you think society would be better off if researchers stopped trying to discover the causes for them? Why or why not? How might parents and teachers moderate the effects of stereotype threat on children’s test performance?

CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL NEEDS Overview Thirteen percent of all U.S. children receive some kind of special education. See Table 9.3 (p. 232) for a list of disabilities for which U.S. children receive special education services. One of the growing categories of disabilities include learning disabilities. Learning disabilities: difficulty in mastering a specific academic skill, most often reading, despite possessing normal intelligence and no physical or sensory handicaps

CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL NEEDS Learning Disabilities Learning disabilities: disorder in which a child has difficulty in mastering a specific academic skill, even though she or he possesses normal intelligence and no physical or sensory handicap Learning disabilities: difficulty in mastering a specific academic skill, most often reading, despite possessing normal intelligence and no physical or sensory handicaps Dyslexia: skill deficit specific to reading May have trouble understanding the sound and structure of language Reciprocal teaching: working in pairs or groups Inclusion: at least part of school day in regular classroom

CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL NEEDS Learning Disabilities Dyslexia: skill deficit specific to reading that may include difficulty understanding the sound and structure of language Disability Reciprocal teaching: working in pairs or groups Inclusion: at least part of the school day is spent in regular classrooms Teaching approaches Learning disabilities – difficulty in mastering a specific academic skill – most often reading despite possessing normal intelligence and no physical or sensory handicaps. Dyslexia- skill deficit specific to reading May have trouble understanding sound and structure of language Reciprocal teaching – working in pairs or groups Inclusion: at least part of the school day is spent in regular classrooms

CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL NEEDS Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) ADHD: mental disorder that causes children to have difficulty attending to and completing tasks Causes Cultural factors Characteristics Treatment and management If more than two years behind other children in his or her grade, a child is classified as learning disabled. Causes Neurological differences Functional differences in the right hemisphere Serotonin function is impaired. Children born at 24–31 weeks’ gestation are 4 to 6 times more likely to suffer symptoms of ADHD. Require more sensory stimulation than peers Cultural factors Rare outside the U.S. Parents lose confidence in their abilities and become permissive or overly harsh. May be helped by parental training programs Help regain a sense of control. Receive daily feedback from school. Reinforce specific rules. Stimulant medications Ritalin Use may have a self-fulfilling prophesy effect. May not improve grades

HOMESCHOOLING Approximately 2.4 percent of U.S. children are homeschooled. Twenty-one percent of homeschooled children have special learning needs; sixteen percent have mental or physical challenges. Homeschooled children score in the top 20 percent across all academic subjects (Ray, 2010). Research reveals more about who homeschools than on the effects of homeschooling.

Reflection What factors would motivate you to consider homeschooling your child, and what are some reasons that might make you reluctant to do so? If you were discussing homeschooling with a classmate who cited research showing that homeschoolers get higher achievement-test scores than children who are enrolled in public school, how would you explain the shortcomings of such research?