H OW DNA W ORKS : S TRUCTURE AND F UNCTIONS EQ: How do genes and chromosomes work together to determine an organism’s traits?

DNA B ASICS Almost every cell in your body contains about 2 meters of DNA. If you unraveled all your chromosomes from all the cells of your body, then laid out the DNA end to end, the strands would stretch from the Earth to the Sun about 600 times. - How does all that DNA fit in your body? How does the DNA hold a code that affects your traits?

DNA B ASICS DNA is found in the cells of all organisms, including plants, bacteria, mosquitoes and humans. Each organism has a unique set of DNA, but DNA functions the same way in all organisms

F OR MANY YEARS, THE STRUCTURE OF A DNA MOLECULE WAS A PUZZLE TO SCIENTISTS In the 1950’s, two scientists deduced the structure while experimenting with chemical models. They later won the Nobel Prize for helping to solve this puzzle.

DNA D EFINED As you know, inherited characteristics are determined by genes. Genes are passed from one generation to the next. Genes are parts of chromosomes. Chromosomes are structures in the nucleus of most cells. Chromosomes are made of protein and DNA So, DNA is the material that makes up your chromosomes that determine your inherited characteristics

DNA D EFINED DNA stands for: Dexoyribo Nucleic Acid But is written out as deoxyribonucleic acid

DNA F UNCTIONS Scientists knew that the material that makes up our genes must do two things: Give instructions for building and maintaining cells Must be able to be copied each time a cell divides so that each cell could contain identical genes Scientists eventually discovered that DNA is made of subunits called nucleotides

DNA S TRUCTURES DNA is made of subunits called nucleotides. A “subunit” is a subdivision of a larger unit. For example: a subdivision you live in is a smaller unit of a city or town. It takes many subunits working together to make up a whole, functioning unit. Nucleotides are the subunits that make up DNA

DNA S TRUCTURES Although it may look complicated, the DNA in a cell is really just a pattern made up of different parts called nucleotides. Nucleotides are molecules that, when joined together, make up DNA

DNA S TRUCTURES Nucleotides are made up of a sugar, a phosphate, and a base. All nucleotides are the same except for the base. There are four different kinds of bases: Adenine Thymine Guanine Cytosine

T HE F OUR N UCLEOTIDES Each of the four bases has a different shape. Scientists often refer to a nucleotide’s base by the first letter of it’s base A = Adenine T = Thymine G= Guanine C = Cytosine Annie Takes Good Care

T HE F OUR N UCLEOTIDES Imagine a set of blocks that has only four shapes, or an alphabet that has only four letters. DNA is a long string of these blocks or letters.

T HE F OUR N UCLEOTIDES – C HARGAFF ’ S R ULES Edwin Chargaff, a biochemist, discovered that the amount of adenine (A) always equaled the amount of thymine (T). A = T He also found out that the amount of guanine (G) equals the amount of cytosine (C) G= C Annie Takes Good Care

C HARGAFF ’ S RULES These findings are known as Chargaff’s Rules At the time, these findings were thought to be relatively unimportant, but later on, Chargaff’s rules helped scientists understand the structure of DNA

DNA S TRUCTURES After looking at x-ray images of DNA showing that DNA has a spiral shape, scientists James Watson and Francis Crick concluded that DNA must look like a long, twisted ladder. This discovery eventually helped explain how DNA is copied and how it functions in a cell.

DNA S TRUCTURES DNA looks like a twisted ladder. This shape is known as a double helix. The sides of the ladder are made of alternating sugar and phosphate parts. The rungs are made of a pair of bases.

DNA S TRUCTURES The rungs of the ladder are made of the bases adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine. Adenine on one side of the rung always pairs with thymine (A, T) Annie Takes Guanine always pairs with cytosine on a rung (G,C) Good Care

M AKING C OPIES OF DNA These pairings of the bases allows the cell to replicate, or make copies of, DNA. Each base only bonds with only one other base. Adenine-Thymine Guanine -Cytosine Furthermore, pairs of bases are complementary to each other. For example GCAC will bond with CGTG Ex: TGCA will bond with:

M AKING C OPIES OF DNA During replication, a DNA molecule is split down the middle, where the bases meet. As the bases are exposed, complementary nucleotides are added to each side of the split ladder. Two new DNA molecules are formed. Half of each molecule is the old DNA Half of each molecule is the new DNA

M AKING C OPIES OF DNA DNA is copied every time the cell divides Each new cell gets a complete copy of all the DNA.