INTRODUCTION International law from its inception has been concerned with the protection of human beings against acts of barbarism. These considerations can be found in the writing of the fathers of international law: Francisco de Vittoria, Hugo Grotius, Samuel von Pufendorf.

THE CONCEPT OF INTERNATIONAL PROTECTION OF HUMAN RIGHTS Human rights are inherent to human beings All men are born and remain free and equal in their rights

THE HISTORICAL PROCESS OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS LAW Traditionally only states were subjects of international law. Individuals had no enforceable rights of international law

Initiatives under the auspices of the League of Nations: Protection of minorities The creation of the mandate system in the respect of colonies The supervision of prohibition of traffic in women and children The supervision of prohibition of traffic in dangerous drugs The establishment of first arrangements for the international protection of refugees

Initiatives after the Second World War Internationalisation (recognition that the treatment of citizens in one country has become the business of other countries) and universalisation (general acceptance of human rights by national governments) of the system of human rights law The initiatives of the United Nations – genocide, atrocities and suffering inflicted upon millions of human beings by the Nazi and totalitarian regimes gave a new impetus to those demanding international recognition and enforcement of fundamental human rights and freedoms

THE INTERNATIONAL BILL OF HUMAN RIGHTS The Charter of the United Nations: the foundations for the international protection of human rights, cooperation in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language or religion The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: the Declaration constitutes an authoritative interpretation of the Charter obligations and provides a comprehensive list of human rights and freedoms to be protected. It represents a consensus of the international community regarding human rights which each of its members must respect, promote and observe.

The Declaration sets out a wide range of human rights and freedoms to be protected, ranging from traditional civil and political rights to economic, social and cultural rights: the right to life, liberty and security; freedom from slavery, servitude, torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment;

the right to recognition as a person before the law, the right to judicial remedy, freedom from arbitrary arrest, detention or exile, the right to a fair trial and a public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal, the right to be presumed innocent until proven guilty; freedom from arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home or correspondence, and freedom from attacks upon honour and reputation; freedom of movement, the right to seek asylum, the right to a nationality;

the right to marry and to found a family, the right to own property; freedom of thought, conscience and religion, freedom of opinion and expression; the right to peaceful assembly and association; the right to take part in government and the right to equal access to public services;

the right to work, social security, equal pay, join trade unions, rest and leisure; the right to the adequate standard of living; the right to the education; the right to participate in the cultural life of the community.

The 1966 International Covenants on Human Rights The Covenants have legal force (opposite to the Universal Declaration) as treaties for the Parties to them and constitute a detailed codification of human rights

The Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights contains various articles in which the Parties recognize such rights as the right to work, the right of everyone to social security and to an adequate standard of living for himself and his family. The type of obligation is programmatic and promotional.

The Covenant on Civil and Political Rights is more specific in its delineation of rights, stronger in statement of the obligation to respect the rights specified, and better provided with means of review and supervision.

THE UNITED NATIONS HUMAN RIGHTS MACHINERY The UN human rights machinery consists of three categories of institutions: bodies which have been established directly on the basis of the UN Charter, such as the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Commission on Human Rights; bodies which have been established indirectly by the UN Charter, that is whose creation was authorized by one of the bodies belonging to the first category, eg the Commission on the Status of Women, the Office of High Commissioner for Human Rights, etc; bodies which have been established on the basis of international treaties, for example the Committee against Torture, the Committee on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination etc.

The UN Commission on Human Rights The Commission is made up of 53 representatives of member states of the UN who are selected for a three-year term by ECOSOC on the basis of equitable geographic distribution. In the first 20 years of its existence the Commission focused on preparing an impressive number of international instruments and thus translating the rights proclaimed in the Universal Declaration into binding provisions.

1967 – Resolution 1235 of ECOSOC: holding an annual public debate on gross human rights violations 1970 – Resolution 1503 of ECOSOC: the Sub- Commission n the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights is charged with the examination of individual petitions (between 1972 and states were investigated under the procedure) 2000 – Resolution 2000 of ECOSOC: the criteria for admissibility of individual complaints

Since 1990 the priority of the Commission has been to provide advisory and technical assistance to member states in the field of human rights and to focus on social, economic and cultural rights, including the right to development and to an adequate standard of living

The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights The General Assembly created this office on The main tasks of the High Commissioner are: to promote and protect the enjoyment of all human rights, including the right to development; to provide all forms of assistance (including financial and technical aspects) in the field of human rights at the request of a state; to stimulate and to co-ordinate action on human rights within the UN system at international level.

REGIONAL PROTECTION OF HUMAN RIGHTS There are a number of arrangements aimed to protecting human rights within a specific region. There are human rights initiatives in the Americas, Africa, Asia and Europe. Among regional arrangements the European system of protection of human rights is the best in terms of effectiveness and maturity.

The inter-American human rights system is based on the Charter of the Organisation of American States, the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man and the Inter- American Convention on Human Rights

Africa African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights

Asia Asian Human Rights Charter

Europe The main element of the European system for the protection of human rights is the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 1950 (ECHR), together with nits enforcement mechanisms

The main objectives of the Council of Europe (one of the most efficient and competent inter-governmental organizations in Europe) are: the promotion of European Unity by proposing ad encouraging common European action in economic, social, legal and administrative matters; the protection of human rights, fundamental freedoms and pluralist democracies; the development of a European cultural identity.

The European Convention on Human Rights is the greatest achievement of the Council of Europe. But among important conventions prepared b the Council of Europe which complement and extend the protection of human rights in Europe are: The European Social Charter; The Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities; The European Convention for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment. The Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine (the Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine

The European Convention on Human Rights The ECHR was opened for signatures on 4 November 1950 and entered into force in September European states are contracting states to the ECHR The ECHR, together with its Protocols and procedures for enforcement, constitutes the first and the most efficient regional arrangement for the protection of human rights. Rights protected under the Convention are both civil and political rights.

Substantive rights protected under the ECHR Right to life; Prohibition of Torture; Prohibition of Slavery and Forced Labour; Right to a Fair Trial; Right to No Punishment without Law; Right to Respect for Private and Family Life;

Freedom of Thought, Conscience and Religion; Freedom of Expression; Freedom of Assembly and Association; Right to Marry; Right to an Effective Remedy; Prohibition of Discrimination.

The European Court of Human Rights The number of judges is the same as the number of contracting states (44) The criteria for the office of judges are: A judge sits in his individual capacity and does not represent ant state; He or she must hold a high moral standing; Have relevant qualifications in his/her country for holding position of high office; Must act with total impartiality and independence

Judges are nominated by a contracting state There are two categories of applicants under the ECHR: contracting states and individuals

Procedure The conditions of admissibility: There must be a prima facie violation of one or more of the provisions of the ECHR; The available domestic remedies must be exhausted; The application must be lodged within six months of the final decision of the highest domestic court or authority.

An application will be rejected if: It is anonymous; If it is similar to a case already been submited to another procedure or international investigation or settlement; If it constitutes an abuse of the right complaint (for example it s brought for political propaganda purposes); If it concerns matters falling outside the scope of ECHR.

Procedure on the merits Chambers decide cases by a majority vote The judges are allowed to give separate dissenting or concurrent judgements Within three months of the judgment of a Chamber, any party may ask for a referral to a Grand Chamber – it is possible if the case raises a serious question affecting the interpretation or application of the Convention or the protocols or a serious issue of general importance A final judgment is binding on te respondent state concerned and its execution is supervised by the Committee of Ministers

The European Union In the EU the protection of human rights has acquired two dimensions: 1. First many issues relating to human rights arise under the EU internal and external competences; 2. The second dimension is that human rights are envisaged in a broad context i respect of all EU policies as being part of the general principles of EC law

Article 2 of the Treaty on European Union: „The Union is founded on the values of respect for human dignity, freedom, democracy, equality, the rule of law and respect for human rights, including the rights of persons belonging to minorities. These values are common to the Member States in a society in which pluralism, non-discrimination, tolerance, justice, solidarity and equality between women and men prevail. „

Article 6 „1. The Union recognises the rights, freedoms and principles set out in the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union of 7 December 2000, as adapted at Strasbourg, on 12 December 2007, which shall have the same legal value as the Treaties. The provisions of the Charter shall not extend in any way the competences of the Union as defined in the Treaties. The rights, freedoms and principles in the Charter shall be interpreted in accordance with the general provisions in Title VII of the Charter governing its interpretation and application and with due regard to the explanations referred to in the Charter, that set out the sources of those provisions. 2. The Union shall accede to the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. Such accession shall not affect the Union’s competences as defined in the Treaties. 3. Fundamental rights, as guaranteed by the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms and as they result from the constitutional traditions common to the Member States, shall constitute general principles of the Union’s law. „

The European Charter of Fundametal Rights First the document adopted by the Intergovernmental Conference in Nice (December 2000) as the declaration - non-binding proclamation, after the Treaty of Lisbon (December 2009) it should be treated as a primary law of the EU The Charter contains 50 articles. Its main purpose is to make fundamental rights and freedoms more visible more explicit and more familiar to EU citizens

CONCLUSIONS Efforts made by the international community to ensure the protection of human rights (which have just been established or proclaimed) are certainly encouraging but they must be assessed in the light of what many nations are actually doing.

The respect for human rights ca not be confined to mere declarations (soft law). So far as the UN system is concerned its effectiveness in the enforcement of human rights is still weak for many reasons, the most important being: it is not mandatory, therefore there are many states unwilling to submit themselves to any external scrutiny;

there is no judicial mechanism within the UN to deal with individual complaints; the reporting and monitoring system is still based on confidentiality; the Security Council has not taken any consistent and firm stand in respect of states violating basic human rights. The principle of non-interference in domestic matters, and the political assessment of human rights situations, often prevail.

At the regional level (apart from Europe where the protection of human rights is well advanced) there is a very large credibility gap between promises, which are easy to make, and performance which either seems to be very hard to effect or in respect of which there is not the will to carry through.