L4 January 271 Semiconductor Device Modeling and Characterization EE5342, Lecture 4-Spring 2005 Professor Ronald L. Carter

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L4 January 274 Classes of semiconductors Intrinsic: n o = p o = n i, since N a &N d << n i =[N c N v exp(E g /kT)] 1/2,(not easy to get) n-type: n o > p o, since N d > N a p-type: n o < p o, since N d < N a Compensated: n o =p o =n i, w/ N a - = N d + > 0 Note: n-type and p-type are usually partially compensated since there are usually some opposite-type dopants

L4 January 275 Equilibrium concentrations Charge neutrality requires q(p o + N d + ) + (-q)(n o + N a - ) = 0 Assuming complete ionization, so N d + = N d and N a - = N a Gives two equations to be solved simultaneously 1. Mass action, n o p o = n i 2, and 2. Neutralityp o + N d = n o + N a

L4 January 276 For N d > N a >Let N = N d -N a, and (taking the + root) n o = (N)/2 + {[N/2] 2 +n i 2 } 1/2 For N d+ = N d >> n i >> N a we have >n o = N d, and >p o = n i 2 /N d Equilibrium conc n-type

L4 January 277 For N a > N d >Let N = N d -N a, and (taking the + root) p o = (-N)/2 + {[-N/2] 2 +n i 2 } 1/2 For N a- = N a >> n i >> N d we have >p o = N a, and >n o = n i 2 /N a Equilibrium conc p-type

L4 January 278 Position of the Fermi Level E fi is the Fermi level when n o = p o E f shown is a Fermi level for n o > p o E f < E fi when n o < p o E fi < (E c + E v )/2, which is the mid- band

L4 January 279 E F relative to E c and E v Inverting n o = N c exp[-(E c -E F )/kT] gives E c - E F = kT ln(N c /n o ) For n-type material: E c - E F =kTln(N c /N d )=kTln[(N c P o )/n i 2 ] Inverting p o = N v exp[-(E F -E v )/kT] givesE F - E v = kT ln(N v /p o ) For p-type material: E F - E v = kT ln(N v /N a )

L4 January 2710 E F relative to E fi Letting n i = n o gives  E f = E fi n i = N c exp[-(E c -E fi )/kT], so E c - E fi = kT ln(N c /n i ). Thus E F - E fi = kT ln(n o /n i ) and for n- typeE F - E fi = kT ln(N d /n i ) Likewise E fi - E F = kT ln(p o /n i ) and for p- type E fi - E F = kT ln(N a /n i )

L4 January 2711 Locating E fi in the bandgap Since E c - E fi = kT ln(N c /n i ), and E fi - E v = kT ln(N v /n i ) The sum of the two equations gives E fi = (E c + E v )/2 - (kT/2) ln(N c /N v ) Since N c = 2.8E19cm -3 > 1.04E19cm -3 = N v, the intrinsic Fermi level lies below the middle of the band gap

L4 January 2712 Sample calculations E fi = (E c + E v )/2 - (kT/2) ln(N c /N v ), so at 300K, kT = meV and N c /N v = 2.8/1.04, E fi is 12.8 meV or 1.1% below mid-band For N d = 3E17cm -3, given that E c - E F = kT ln(N c /N d ), we have E c - E F = meV ln(280/3), E c - E F = eV =117meV ~3x(E c - E D ) what N d gives E c -E F =E c /3

L4 January 2713 Equilibrium electron conc. and energies

L4 January 2714 Equilibrium hole conc. and energies

L4 January 2715 Carrier Mobility In an electric field, E x, the velocity (since a x = F x /m* = qE x /m*) is v x = a x t = (qE x /m*)t, and the displ x = (qE x /m*)t 2 /2 If every  coll, a collision occurs which “resets” the velocity to = 0, then = qE x  coll /m* =  E x

L4 January 2716 Carrier mobility (cont.) The response function  is the mobility. The mean time between collisions,  coll, may has several important causal events: Thermal vibrations, donor- or acceptor-like traps and lattice imperfections to name a few. Hence  thermal = q  thermal /m*, etc.

L4 January 2717 Carrier mobility (cont.) If the rate of a single contribution to the scattering is 1/  i, then the total scattering rate, 1/  coll is

L4 January 2718 Drift Current The drift current density (amp/cm 2 ) is given by the point form of Ohm Law J = (nq  n +pq  p )(E x i+ E y j+ E z k), so J = (  n +  p )E =  E, where  = nq  n +pq  p defines the conductivity The net current is

L4 January 2719 Drift current resistance Given: a semiconductor resistor with length, l, and cross-section, A. What is the resistance? As stated previously, the conductivity,  = nq  n + pq  p So the resistivity,  = 1/  = 1/(nq  n + pq  p )

L4 January 2720 Drift current resistance (cont.) Consequently, since R =  l/A R = (nq  n + pq  p ) -1 (l/A) For n >> p, (an n-type extrinsic s/c) R = l/(nq  n A) For p >> n, (a p-type extrinsic s/c) R = l/(pq  p A)

L4 January 2721 Drift current resistance (cont.) Note: for an extrinsic semiconductor and multiple scattering mechanisms, since R = l/(nq  n A) or l/(pq  p A), and (  n or p total ) -1 =   i -1, then R total =  R i (series Rs) The individual scattering mechanisms are: Lattice, ionized impurity, etc.

L4 January 2722 Exp. mobility model function for Si 1 ParameterAsPB  min  max N ref 9.68e169.20e162.23e17 

L4 January 2723 Exp. mobility model for P, As and B in Si

L4 January 2724 Carrier mobility functions (cont.) The parameter  max models 1/  lattice the thermal collision rate The parameters  min, N ref and  model 1/  impur the impurity collision rate The function is approximately of the ideal theoretical form: 1/  total = 1/  thermal + 1/  impurity

L4 January 2725 Carrier mobility functions (ex.) Let N d = 1.78E17/cm3 of phosphorous, so  min = 68.5,  max = 1414, N ref = 9.20e16 and  = Thus  n = 586 cm2/V-s Let N a = 5.62E17/cm3 of boron, so  min = 44.9,  max = 470.5, N ref = 9.68e16 and  = Thus  n = 189 cm2/V-s

L4 January 2726 Lattice mobility The  lattice is the lattice scattering mobility due to thermal vibrations Simple theory gives  lattice ~ T -3/2 Experimentally  n,lattice ~ T -n where n = 2.42 for electrons and 2.2 for holes Consequently, the model equation is  lattice (T) =  lattice (300)(T/300) -n

L4 January 2727 Ionized impurity mobility function The  impur is the scattering mobility due to ionized impurities Simple theory gives  impur ~ T 3/2 /N impur Consequently, the model equation is  impur (T) =  impur (300)(T/300) 3/2

L4 January 2728 Mobility Summary The concept of mobility introduced as a response function to the electric field in establishing a drift current Resistivity and conductivity defined Model equation def for  (N d,N a,T) Resistivity models developed for extrinsic and compensated materials

L4 January 2729 Net silicon (ex- trinsic) resistivity Since  =  -1 = (nq  n + pq  p ) -1 The net conductivity can be obtained by using the model equation for the mobilities as functions of doping concentrations. The model function gives agreement with the measured  (N impur )

L4 January 2730 Net silicon extr resistivity (cont.)

L4 January 2731 Net silicon extr resistivity (cont.) Since  = (nq  n + pq  p ) -1, and  n >  p, (  = q  /m*) we have  p >  n Note that since 1.6(high conc.) <  p /  n < 3(low conc.), so 1.6(high conc.) <  n /  p < 3(low conc.)

L4 January 2732 Net silicon (com- pensated) res. For an n-type (n >> p) compensated semiconductor,  = (nq  n ) -1 But now n = N = N d - N a, and the mobility must be considered to be determined by the total ionized impurity scattering N d + N a = N I Consequently, a good estimate is  = (nq  n ) -1 = [Nq  n (N I )] -1

L4 January 2733 Equipartition theorem The thermodynamic energy per degree of freedom is kT/2 Consequently,

L4 January 2734 Carrier velocity saturation 1 The mobility relationship v =  E is limited to “low” fields v < v th = (3kT/m*) 1/2 defines “low” v =  o E[1+(E/E c )  ] -1/ ,  o = v 1 /E c for Si parameter electrons holes v 1 (cm/s) 1.53E9 T E8 T E c (V/cm) 1.01 T T 1.68  2.57E-2 T T 0.17

L4 January 2735 v drift [cm/s] vs. E [V/cm] (Sze 2, fig. 29a)

L4 January 2736 Carrier velocity saturation (cont.) At 300K, for electrons,  o = v 1 /E c = 1.53E9(300) /1.01(300) 1.55 = 1504 cm 2 /V-s, the low-field mobility The maximum velocity (300K) is v sat =  o E c = v 1 = 1.53E9 (300) = 1.07E7 cm/s

L4 January 2737 Diffusion of carriers In a gradient of electrons or holes,  p and  n are not zero Diffusion current,  J =  J p +  J n (note D p and D n are diffusion coefficients)

L4 January 2738 Diffusion of carriers (cont.) Note (  p) x has the magnitude of dp/dx and points in the direction of increasing p (uphill) The diffusion current points in the direction of decreasing p or n (downhill) and hence the - sign in the definition of  J p and the + sign in the definition of  J n

L4 January 2739 Diffusion of Carriers (cont.)

L4 January 2740 Current density components

L4 January 2741 Total current density

L4 January 2742 Doping gradient induced E-field If N = N d -N a = N(x), then so is E f -E fi Define  = (E f -E fi )/q = (kT/q)ln(n o /n i ) For equilibrium, E fi = constant, but for dN/dx not equal to zero, E x = -d  /dx =- [d(E f -E fi )/dx](kT/q) = -(kT/q) d[ln(n o /n i )]/dx = -(kT/q) (1/n o )[dn o /dx] = -(kT/q) (1/N)[dN/dx], N > 0

L4 January 2743 Induced E-field (continued) Let V t = kT/q, then since n o p o = n i 2 gives n o /n i = n i /p o E x = - V t d[ln(n o /n i )]/dx = - V t d[ln(n i /p o )]/dx = - V t d[ln(n i /|N|)]/dx, N = -N a < 0 E x = - V t (-1/p o )dp o /dx = V t (1/p o )dp o /dx = V t (1/N a )dN a /dx

L4 January 2744 The Einstein relationship For E x = - V t (1/n o )dn o /dx, and J n,x = nq  n E x + qD n (dn/dx) = 0 This requires that nq  n [V t (1/n)dn/dx] = qD n (dn/dx) Which is satisfied if

L4 January 2745 References *Fundamentals of Semiconductor Theory and Device Physics, by Shyh Wang, Prentice Hall, **Semiconductor Physics & Devices, by Donald A. Neamen, 2nd ed., Irwin, Chicago. M&K = Device Electronics for Integrated Circuits, 3rd ed., by Richard S. Muller, Theodore I. Kamins, and Mansun Chan, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 2003.

L4 January 2746 References 1 Device Electronics for Integrated Circuits, 2 ed., by Muller and Kamins, Wiley, New York, Physics of Semiconductor Devices, by S. M. Sze, Wiley, New York, 1981.