Using iMETOS Weather Stations for a Small Grain Disease Information Network Possible Strategies and Solutions

iMETOS GPRS or CSD-Dial in based internet connection SMS alert messages for Frost Soil Moisture …. Climate sensors for Disease models Evapotranspiration … Soil moisture sensors Watermak Tensiometer Ech 2 o Probes Sentek Enviroscan Sentek easy ag Sentek TriScan Temperature Monitoring in Silos Plastic Tunnels …..

iMETOS = Internet based GPRS or CSD-Dial in based internet connection Sends data periodically to a web based database Database is hosted by Pessl Instruments Pessl Instruments and mirrored by client organization Client organization PHP – MySQL or PostgreSQL scripts available Station settings and data handling needs web browser no PC software

Disease Forecast is calculated by 1.Novi Sad University Data is hosted by Pessl Instruments and mirrored Novi Sad University 2.Pessl Instruments on FieldClimate Website 3.Third party software Proplant Data is hosted by Pessl Instruments and Proplant Dacom… Data is hosted by Pessl Instruments and Proplant

The Models for Small Grains Pessl Instruments is Working on Rust diseases –Leaf Rust ( Puccinia tritici), Steam Rust (Puccinia gramminis), Stripe Rust ( Puccinia stritiformis ) Fusarium Head Blight Septoria tritici

Rust Diseases … on wheat are diseases of the warmer climate. Where the majority of the wheat in ha is grown. The tree rust diseases Leaf rust (Puccinia tritici), Stem rust (Puccinia graminis) and Stripe rust (Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici) are differing in their climate needs. Therefore they will occure alone or in combinations in ecosystems where their climate needs are fulfilled. Rusts on wheat are belonging to the plant diseases which are described since very old days. The Italians Fontana and Tozzetti independently provided the first unequivocal and detailed reports of wheat stem rust in The causal organism of wheat stem rust was named P. graminis by Person in from left to right: 1, 2: Leaf Rust, 3, 4: Steam Rust, 5, 6, 7: Stripe Rust

Puccinia triticina … can survive the same environmental conditions that the wheat leaf survives, provided infection but no sporulation has occurred. The fungus can infect with dew periods of three hours or less at temperatures of about 20°C; however, more infections occur with longer dew periods. At cooler temperatures, longer dew periods are required, for example, at 10°C a 12-hour dew period is necessary. Few if any infections occur where dew period temperatures are above 32°C (Stubbs et al., 1986) or below 2°C. Most of the severe epidemics occur when uredinia and/or latent infections survive the winter at some threshold level on the wheat crop, or where spring-sown wheat is the recipient of exogenous inoculum at an early date, usually before heading. Severe epidemics and losses can occur when the flag leaf is infected before anthesis (Chester, 1946). Puccinia triticina is primarily a pathogen of wheat, its immediate ancestors and the man-made crop triticale.

The life cycle for P. triticina, P. triticiduri and the disease cycle for wheat leaf rust is shown in the Figure beside. The time for each event and frequency of some events (sexual cycle, wheat cropping season and green-bridge) may vary among areas and regions of the world. The alternate host currently provides little direct inoculum of P. triticina to wheat, but may be a mechanism for genetic exchanges between races and perhaps populations. The pathogen survives the period between wheat crops in many areas on a green-bridge of volunteer (self-sown) wheat. Inoculum in the form of urediniospores can be blown by winds from one region to another. The sexual cycle is essential for P. triticiduri.

Urediniospores of P. triticina … initiate germination 30 minutes after contact with free water at temperatures of 15° to 25°C. The germ tube grows along the leaf surface until it reaches a stoma; an appressorium is then formed, followed immediately by the development of a penetration peg and a sub-stomatal vesicle from which primary hyphae develop. A haustorial mother cell develops against the mesophyll cell, and direct penetration occurs. The haustorium is formed inside the living host cell in a compatible host-pathogen interaction. Secondary hyphae develop resulting in additional haustorial mother cells and haustoria. In an incompatible host-pathogen response, haustoria fail to develop or develop at a slower rate. When the host cell dies, the fungus haustorium dies. Depending upon when or how many cells are involved, the host-pathogen interaction will result in a visible resistance response (Rowell, 1981, 1982).

P. Triticina Spores Spore germination to sporulation can occur within a seven- to ten-day period at optimum and constant temperatures. At low temperatures (10° to15°C) or diurnal fluctuations, longer periods are necessary. The fungus may survive as insipid mycelia for a month or more when temperatures are near or below freezing. Maximum sporulation is reached about four days following initial sporulation (at about 20°C). Although the number can vary greatly, about spores are produced per uredinium per day. This level of production may continue for three weeks or more if the wheat leaf remains alive that long (Chester, 1946; Stubbs et al., 1986).

The teliospores of P. triticina are formed under the epidermis with unfavourable conditions or senescence and remain with the leaves. Leaf tissues can be dispersed or moved by wind, animals or humans to considerable distances. Basidiospores are formed and released under humid conditions, which limit their spread. Basidiospores are also hyaline and sensitive to light, further limiting travel to probably tens of metres. Aeciospores are more similar to urediniospores in their ability to be transported by wind currents, but long-distance transport has not been noted for some reason.

Puccinia tritici infections are taking place after for hours of leaf wetness at optimum temperature conditions. The fungus can infect over a wide range of temperatures. The model assumes that infection needs an accumulated hourly air temperature of 90°C of leaf wetness in a air temperature range from 5°C to 30°C. Leaf wetness for accumulated hourly average temperatures for 90°C - (if T h) else ∑ (22.5-(Th-22.5)) - 5°C < Temp. < 30°C

Stem or black rust of wheat is caused by P. graminis f. sp. tritici. At one time, it was a feared disease in most wheat regions of the world. The fear of stem rust was under- standable because an apparently healthy crop three weeks before harvest could be reduced to a black tangle of broken stems and shrivelled grain by harvest. In Europe and North America, the removal of the alternate host reduced the number of combinations of virulence and the amount of locally produced inoculum (aeciospores). In addition, in some areas early maturing cultivars were introduced to permit a second crop or to avoid flowering and grain-filling during hot weather. Early maturing cultivars escape much of the damage caused by stem rust by avoiding the growth period of the fungus. The widespread use of resistant cultivars worldwide has reduced the disease as a significant factor in production. Although changes in pathogen virulence have rendered some resistances ineffective, resistant cultivars have generally been developed ahead of the pathogen. The spectacular epidemics that developed on Eureka (Sr6 in Australia) in the 1940s and on Lee (Sr9g, Sr11, Sr16), Langdon (Sr9e, +) and Yuma (Sr9e, +) in the United States in the mid-1950s really have been the exceptions in the past. The experience in other parts of the world has been similar (Luig and Watson, 1972; Roelfs, 1986; Saari and Prescott, 1985). Today, stem rust is largely under control worldwide.

Epidemiology The epidemiology of P. graminis is similar to P. triticina. The minimum, optimum and maximum temperatures for spore germination are 2°, 15° to 24°, and 30°C, respectively (Hogg et al., 1969) and for sporulation, 5°, 30° and 40°C, respectively, which is about 5.5°C higher in each category than for P. triticina. Stem rust is more important late in the growing period, on late-sown and maturing wheat cultivars, and at lower altitudes. Spring-sown wheat is particularly vulnerable in the higher latitudes if sources of inoculum are located downwind. Large areas of autumn-sown wheat occur in the southern Great Plains of North America, providing inoculum for the northern spring-sown wheat crop. In warm humid climates, stem rust can be especially severe due to the long period of favourable conditions for disease development when a local inoculum source is available.

Puccinia gramminis infections are taking place after for hours of leaf wetness at optimum temperature conditions. The fungus can infect over a wide range of temperatures. The model assumes that infection needs an accumulated hourly air temperature of 80°C of leaf wetness in a air temperature range from 10°C to 35°C.It prefers a little higher temperatures than P. tritici and the infection has to be followed by sunlight. Leaf wetness for accumulated hourly average temperatures for 80°C followed by a light geriod (150 W/m²) for accumulated hourly average temperatures for 30°C - (if T h) else ∑ Th-24? - 10°C < Temp. < 35°C

Stripe or yellow rust of wheat caused by P. striiformis f. sp. tritici can be as damaging as stem rust. However, stripe rust has a lower optimum temperature for development that limits it as a major disease in many areas of the world. Stripe rust is principally an important disease of wheat during the winter or early spring or at high elevations. Table 13.3 shows regions of the world where stripe rust has been a major or local problem. Stripe rust of wheat may be the cause of stripe rust on barley (Stubbs, 1985). In Europe, a forma specialis of P. striiformis has evolved that is commonly found on barley and seldom on any but the most susceptible wheats (Zadoks, 1961). Puccinia striiformis f. sp. hordei was introduced into South America where it spread across the continent (Dubin and Stubbs, 1986) and was later identified in Mexico and United States (Roelfs et al., 1992).

Epidemiology Puccinia striiformis has the lowest temperature requirements of the three wheat rust pathogens. Minimum, optimum and maximum temperatures for stripe rust infection are 0°, 11° and 23°C, respectively (Hogg et al., 1969). Puccinia striiformis frequently can actively overwinter on autumn-sown wheat. Most of the epidemiology work has been done in Europe and recently reviewed by Zadoks and Bouwman (1985) and Rapilly (1979). In Europe, P. striiformis oversummers on wheat (Zadoks, 1961). The amount of over-summering rust depends on the amount of volunteer wheat, which, in turn, is a function of moisture in the off-season. The ured-iniospores are then blown to autumn-sown wheat. In northwestern Europe, overwintering is limited to urediniomycelia in living leaf tissues as temperatures of -4°C will kill exposed sporulating lesions. Latent lesions can survive if the leaf survives. In other areas of the world, snow can insulate the sporulating lesions from the cold temperatures so air temperatures below -4°C fail to eliminate the rust lesions. The latent period for stripe rust during the winter can be up to 118 days and is suspected to be as many as 150 days under a snow cover (Zadoks, 1961).

Puccinia stritiformis infection Model Puccinia stritiformis is the wheat rust of cool climates having its optimum temperature already from 15°C on. Its infections are taking place after for hours of leaf wetness at optimum temperature conditions. The fungus can infect over a wide range of temperatures. The model assumes that infection needs an accumulated hourly air temperature of 80°C of leaf wetness in a air temperature range from 5°C to 20°C. There are no infections in periods with low light intensities. Leaf wetness and light for accumulated hourly average temperatures for 80°C - (if T <= 15°C then ∑(Th) else ∑ Th-15? - 5°C < Temp. < 20°C

Disease Models for Wheat Overview Puccinia tritici infections are taking place after for hours of leaf wetness at optimum temperature conditions. The fungus can infect over a wide range of temperatures. The model assumes that infection needs 90°C*hours of leaf wetness in a range from 5°C to 30°C. Puccinia gramminis prefers a little higher temperatures and the infection has to be followed by sunlight. Whereas Puccinia stritiformis is the wheat rust of cool climates having its optimum temperature already from 15°C on. Puccinia tritici Leaf wetness for 90°C*h (if T <= 22.5°C then ∑(T h ) else ∑ (22.5-(T h -22.5)) 5°C < Temp. < 30°C Puccinia stritiformis Leaf wetness for 80°C*h (if T <= 15°C then ∑(T h ) else ∑ (15-(T h -15)) 5°C < Temp. < 20°C No infections in times with low light intentions Puccinia gramminis Leaf wetness for 80°C*h following by a light period (150 W/m²) for 30°C*h (if T <= 24°C then ∑(T h ) else ∑ (24-(T h -24)) 10°C < Temp. < 35°C

Disease Models for Wheat FHB fusarium head blight in small grain is caused by different pathogens from the genius fusarium ssp. For all common is the infection during extended moist peirods at flowering. The Pessl Instruments model is asking for relative humdity higher tahn 90% or leafwetness for 48 to 72 hours depending on temperature. It this condition is fullfilled during flowering a FHB infection has to be assumed. Old Model used in 2007 and 2008

Fusarium on wheat susceptible in BBCH stage 61 to 85 Infection: 12 h of leafwetness or more than 85% rel. humidity following a rain of 2 mm Mycotoxin Risk evaluation: Starting with start of infection at * °C 48 hours of moisture (leaf wetness or more than 85% relative humditiy) => 100% risk * more than 28°C 60 h of moisture (leaf wetness or more than 85% relative humditiy) => 100% risk * °C 72h of moisture (leaf wetness or more than 85% relative humditiy) => 100% risk * 8-15°C 96 h of moisture (leaf wetness or more than 85% relative humditiy) => 100% risk This model is done by a very long literature list Infektion und Ausbreitung von Fusarium spp. an Weizen in Abhängigkeit der Anbaubedingungen im Rheinland Lienemann, K.; E.-C. Oerke und H.-W. Dehne Water activity, temperature, and pH effects on growth of Fusarium moniliforme and Fusarium proliferatum isolates from maize Sonia Marin, Vicente Sanchis, and Naresh Magan Interaction of Fusarium graminearum and F. moniliforme in Maize Ears: Disease Progress, Fungal Biomass, and Mycotoxin Accumulation L. M. Reid, R. W. Nicol, T. Ouellet, M. Savard, J. D. Miller, J. C. Young, D. W. Stewart, and A. W. Schaafsma Evaluierung von Einflussfaktoren auf den Fusarium-Ährenbefall des Weizens Wolf, P. F. J.; Schempp, H.; Verreet, J.-A.

Fusarium Head Blight and Field History Wheat after Corn non Tillage Wheat after Corn Wheat after Wheat non Tillage Wheat after Wheat. Wheat after Sugar Beet, Rape Seed or Potato Increasing Risk

Fusarium and DON Heavy Infections in Stage 61 to 69 will lead to small or very small corn and mostly low DON values Light Infections in Stage 61 to 69 allow the pathogen to establish itself inside the head Ongoing leaf wetness in stage 71 to 85 will allow fungal growth and will increase DON values

Disease Models for Wheat Septoria tritici pycnidiospores germinate on a suitable substrate when the plants are wet (Plate 33). Spores begin to germinate within 12 hours, and leaf penetration occurs after 24 hours. Moisture is required for all stages of infection: germination, penetration, development of the mycelium within the plant tissue and subsequent pycnidium formation (Browning, 1979; Hooker, 1957; Shaner and Finney, 1982). The pycnidia range in color from light to dark brown. Pycnidiospore production may be related to cultivar response, with lower pycnidiospore production occurring on resistant cultivars (Plate 34, Plate 35) (Gough, 1978).The splash dispersal mechanism, influenced by rain, limits distances to which pycnidiospores can be spread. The Pessl Instruments model for S. tritici infection is looking for rain > 4mm and then for 20 hours to 26 hours of leaf wetness in dependence of temperature. This conditions will give a septoria tritici infection.

Disease Models for Wheat The mycelium of S. nodorum can also be seed-borne and can cause seedling infection. Brown lesions occur on coleoptiles of wheat seedlings grown from infected seed (Machacek, 1945). Pycnidiospore germination and penetration are greatest between 15° and 25°C, with a minimum of six hours of wetness necessary for good infection (Plate 39) (Sharen and Krupinsky, 1970). The period from penetration to the production of mature pycnidia is as short as six days when the temperature is 22°C and in a water-saturated atmosphere (Tomerlin, 1985). The pycnidiospores are spread by splashing or wind-blown rain (Plate 40). Septoria nodorum pycnidiospores are mostly dispersed over short distances within crops causing localized disease spread. Wind greatly increases the dispersal of smaller droplets and spores in the downwind direction (Brennan et al., 1985a, 1985b). The Pessl Instruments model for S. nodorum infection is lloking for rain > 2mm and leafwetness after this. Leafwetness at 20 to 28°C has to last for 6 hour. At lower and higher temperatures ist has to last longer.

FieldClimate Data Interfaces SOAP- Interface Documentation can be found in or on –The Interface is build for organisations willing to build up their own webservers supporting climate, and disease infromation –Climate data and disease model results can be downlaoded trough this interface PC-Software to mirror data of selected weather stations in local Access Database –Using the SOAP Interface –Using the Access Database present on most windows PCs

Data Interfaces for Student Projects Download data to local PC Export this data into Excel readable Format –Software can be downloaded from (Mark Trappman Export) Use this Data in Access Use This data direct by own C-Programs for Access Use this data by Delphi programs Development toosl and code examples can be delivered by Heiner Denzer