Chapter 11: Personality: Theory, Research, and Assessment

Personality theory attempts to describe and explain how people are similar, how they are different, and why every individual is unique. Personality Theory

Defining Personality: Consistency and Distinctiveness Personality Traits –Dispositions and dimensions The Five-Factor Model –Extraversion –Neuroticism –Openness to experience –Agreeableness –Conscientiousness

Sigmund Freud and Psychoanalysis Personality –A person’s characteristic patterns of behaving, thinking, and feeling Psychoanalysis –Freud’s term for his theory of personality and his therapy for treating psychological disorders –Central idea - Unconscious forces shape human thought and behavior

Psychodynamic Perspectives Freud’s psychoanalytic theory –Conflict Sex and Aggression Anxiety Defense Mechanisms

Sigmund Freud and Psychoanalysis Three Levels of Consciousness Conscious –The thoughts, feelings, sensations, or memories of which a person is aware at any given moment Preconscious –The thoughts, feelings, and memories that a person is not consciously aware of at the moment but that may be easily brought to consciousness Unconscious –The primary motivating force of human behavior that have never been conscious, containing Repressed memories Instincts Wishes Desires

Figure 11.2 Freud’s model of personality structure

Psychodynamic Perspectives Freud’s psychoanalytic theory –Structure of personality Id - Pleasure principle Ego - Reality principle Superego - Morality –Levels of awareness Conscious Unconscious Preconscious

The Id, Ego, and Superego Ego –The logical, rational, largely conscious system of personality –Operates according to the reality principle –Evolves from and draws its energy from the id One function is to satisfy the id’s urges Considers the constraints of the real world –Determines appropriate times, places, and objects of gratification of the id’s wishes Compromises towards what is possible –Settling for fast food hamburger instead of steak

The Id, Ego, and Superego Freud’s proposed concepts for looking at personality ID –The unconscious system of the personality which contains –The life instincts Sexual instincts Biological urges like hunger and thirst –The death instincts Aggressive and destructive impulses –Operates on the pleasure principle. Seeks pleasure and avoids pain Gain immediate gratification for its wishes –The source of the libido The psychic energy that fuels the entire personality

The Id, Ego, and Superego Superego –Moral component of the personality –The conscious All behaviors for which a child has been punished and feels guilty –The ego ideal Behaviors for which a child has been praised, rewarded, and feels pride and satisfaction –Initially reflects only the parents’ expectations of what is good and right –Expands over time incorporating the broader social world –Sets guidelines define and limits the ego’s flexibility –Harsher than external authorities –Judges behaviors, thoughts, feelings, and wishes

WWBCopyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Defense Mechanisms  A means used by the ego to defend against anxiety and to maintain self-esteem  All people use defense mechanisms to some degree  Overuse can adversely affect mental health  Repression  The most frequently used  removes painful or threatening memories, thoughts, perceptions from consciousness and keeps them from consciousness  thoughts lurk in the unconscious and cause psychological disorders in adults

Figure 11.3 Freud’s model of personality dynamics

Defense Mechanisms Unconscious mental processes employed by the ego to reduce anxiety

Table 11.1 Defense Mechanisms, with Examples

Freud on Development: Psychosexual Stages Sexual = physical pleasure Psychosexual stages –Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital Fixation = Excessive gratification or frustration Overemphasis on psychosexual needs during fixated stage

WWB Psychosexual Stages of Development The sex instinct is present at birth and the most important factor influencing personality –Develops through a series of psychosexual stages –Each stage centers on a part of the body that provides pleasurable sensations around which a conflict arises –Conflicts not readily resolved –Failure to resolve conflicts may have serious consequences Difficulties carried over into adulthood Fixation –Arrested development at a psychosexual stage occurring because of excessive gratification or frustration at that stage Oedipus complex –One of the most controversial aspects of Freud’s theory –A conflict in which the child is sexually attracted to the opposite- sex parent –Feels hostility toward the same-sex parent –Unresolved adults may have guilt, anxiety, sexual problems, and difficulties relating to members of the opposite sex

Table 11.2 Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development

Fixation Fixation at the anal stage, resulting from harsh parental pressure, could lead to anal retentive personality Characterized by excessive –Stubbornness, –Rigidity –Neatness

Evaluating Freud’s Contribution Psychology is indebted to Freud for introducing –The idea that unconscious forces may motivate behavior –Emphasizing the influence of early childhood experiences on later development Many children who are rejected by their parents have behavioral and psychological difficulties later in life –A theory that may better explain the emotional aspects of the psychological experience –Psychoanalysis is still a useful therapy tool –Defense mechanisms provide useful categorizing of cognitive strategies people use to manage stress Critics of Freud’s theories –It defies scientific testing –Any behavior, or lack of behavior can be interpreted to support Freud’s theory

Other Psychodynamic Theorists Carl Jung: Analytical Psychology –Personal and collective unconscious –Archetypes Alfred Adler: Individual Psychology –Striving for superiority –Compensation

Figure 11.4 Jung’s vision of the collective unconscious

Alfred Adler Emphasized the unity of personality rather than separate warring components of id, ego, and superego Drive to overcome inferiority acquired in childhood motivates most behavior –People develop a unique style of life at an early age that is used through out life to achieve superiority Inferiority complex –Inferiority feelings so strong to prevent personal development Individual Psychology –Another name for Adler’s theory –Stresses the uniqueness of each individual’s struggle to achieve superiority and refers to the “creative self” A conscious, self-aware component of an individual’s personality

Behavioral Perspectives Skinner’s views –Conditioning and response tendencies Bandura’s social cognitive theory –Observational learning –Models –Self-efficacy Mischel’s views –The person-situation controversy

Figure 11.5 A behavioral view of personality

Figure 11.6 Personality development and operant conditioning

Evaluating Behavioral Perspectives Pros –Based on rigorous research –Insights into effects of learning and environmental factors Cons –Over-dependence on animal research –Fragmented view of personality –Dehumanizing views

Learning Theories and Personality Albert Bandura – Social Cognitive Approach –Reciprocal determinism Influential, mutual relationship among behavior, cognitive factors, and environment –Self-efficacy Perception of ability to perform competently whatever is attempted –High Self-efficacy Approach new situations confidently Set high goals Persist in efforts because they believe success is likely –Low Self-Efficacy Expect failure Avoid challenges Give up on tasks found difficult Likely to experience depression

Self-Efficacy A person high in self-efficacy pursue challenging goals and persist in their efforts until they reach them.

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Humanistic Perspectives Carl Rogers’s person-centered theory –Self-concept Conditional/unconditional positive regard Incongruence and anxiety Abraham Maslow’s theory of self- actualization –Hierarchy of needs –The healthy personality

Humanistic Personality Theories Carl Rogers –Conditions of worth set up by our parents Positive regard hinges on these conditions Act us to live and act according to someone else’s values rather than our own To gain positive regard we deny our true selves by inhibiting behavior, denying or distorting perceptions, and closing off parts of our experiences Causes stress and anxiety and threatens our whole self-structure Goal of therapy –Enable people to open up to experiences –Begin to live according to own internal values –Unconditional Positive Regard Unqualified caring and nonjudgmental acceptance of another –High Self-Esteem When our strengths lie in areas we value and believe to be important

Figure 11.7 Rogers’s view of personality structure

Figure 11.8 Rogers’s view of personality development and dynamics

Humanistic Personality Theories Humanistic Psychology People are assumed to have a natural tendency toward growth and realization of their fullest potential Theories are more optimistic and sensitive to emotional experiences Inspired study of positive personal qualities –Altruism, love, and acceptance –Cooperation and self-esteem Difficult to test scientifically Abraham Maslow –Motivational factors are at the root of personality –Hierarchy of Needs Physiological needs Safety needs Belonging and esteem needs Self actualization developing one’s fullest potential

Figure 11.9 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Figure Maslow’s view of the healthy personality

Evaluating Humanistic Perspectives Pros –Recognized importance of subjective views –Recognized importance of self-concept –Laid foundation for positive psychology Cons –Many aspects of theory are difficult to test –Unrealistic optimism –More empirical research needed

Biological Perspectives Eysenk’s theory –Determined by genes –Extraversion-introversion Behavioral genetics –Twin studies –Heritability estimates The evolutionary approach –Traits conducive to reproductive fitness

Figure Eysenck’s model of personality structure

Nature, Nurture, and Personality Interesting Details Twin and Adoption Studies –IQ scores of identical twins are strongly correlated –Identical Twins similar on several personality factors –Regardless of whether twins are raised in the same or different environments –Nurturance, empathy, altruism, aggressiveness, and assertiveness are substantially influenced by heredity –Genes influence Extroversion and Neuroticism than any other dimension on the Big Five –Heredity strongly influences personality Adopted children more similar to genetic family –Genes constrain the ways which environments affect personality traits

Estimated Influence of Heredity and Environment on the Big Five Personality Dimensions.

Evaluating Biological Perspectives Pros –Convincing evidence for genetic influence Cons –Too much reliance on heritability estimates –No comprehensive biological theory

WWBCopyright © Allyn & Personality Assessment Observation, Interviews, and Rating Scales –Observation is used in a variety of settings to assess personality Hospitals, schools, clinics, and workplaces –Behavioral Assessment Counting and recording the frequency of particular behaviors Frequently used in behavior modification programs –Reduced aggression or undesirable behaviors –Time consuming and tedious –Interviews To help in diagnosis and treatment of patients Screen applicants for admission to college, special programs, and to evaluate job applicants and performance A person’s tone of voice, speech, mannerisms, gestures, and general appearance are also considered. Structured Interview are prearranged questions and format

Personality Assessment Projective Techniques Interpretation of an ambiguous image Used to determine unconscious motives, conflicts, and psychological traits

Rorschach Inkblot Test Presentation and interpretation of a series of black-and-white and colored inkblots Numerous scoring systems exist

Thematic Apperception Test Series of pictures depicting ambiguous scenes Person is asked to create a story about the scene Answers are scored according to themes, motives, and anxieties of main character

Drawbacks to Projective Tests Examiner or test situation may influence individual’s response Scoring is highly subjective Tests fail to produce consistent results (reliability problem) Tests are poor predictors of future behavior (validity problem)

Self-Report Inventory Psychological test in which an individual answers standardized questions about their behavior and feelings The answers are then compared with established norms

WWBCopyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Personality Inventories Inventory –A paper-and-pencil test –Contains questions about a person’s thoughts feelings behaviors –Measures several dimensions of personality –Can be scored according to a standard procedure –Yields a personality profile where people fall on various dimensions (traits)

MMPI Most widely used self-report inventory Originally designed to assess mental health and detect psychological symptoms Includes more than 500 questions to which person must reply “True” or “False” Includes “lying scales”

Personality Inventories Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2) –Most widely used and heavily researched personality inventory –Aids in diagnosis of psychiatric problems and disorders –Originally used over 1000 questions about Attitudes, feelings, and symptoms to a group of psychiatric patients –Retained 550 items that differentiate psychiatric patients from those considered ‘normal’ –Second edition added items on alcoholism, drug abuse, suicidal tendencies, eating disorders, and Type A behaviors –Validity scales integrated to detect those who are Lying Faking psychiatric illness Faking no psychiatric illness –Does not reveal normal personality differences very well

Clinical Scales of The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2) Scale NameInterpretation– High scorers… 1. Hypochondriasis (Hs)exhibit an exaggerated concern about their physical health 2. Depression (D)are usually depressed, despondent, and distressed. 3. Hysteria (Hy)complain often about physical symptoms that have no apparent organic cause. 4. Psychpathic deviate (Pd) show a disregard for social and moral standards 5. Masculinity/show “traditional” masculine or feminine attitudes and femininity (Mf) values. 6. Paranoia (Pa)demonstrate extreme suspiciousness and feelings of persecution. 7. Psychasthenia (Pt)tend to be highly anxious, rigid, tense, and worrying 8. Schizophrenia (Sc)tend to be socially withdrawn and toengage in bizarre and unusual thinking. 9. Hypomania (Ma)are usually emtional, excitable, energetic, and impulsive. 10. Social Introversion (S) tend to be modest, self effacing, and shy.

Strengths of Self-Reports Standardized — each person receives same instructions and responds to the same questions Use of established norms: results are compared with previously established norms and are not subjectively evaluated

Weaknesses of Self-Reports Evidence that people can “fake” responses to look better (or worse) Tests contain hundreds of items and become tedious People may not be good judges of their own behavior

A Contemporary Empirical Approach: Terror Management Theory Conflict between self-preservation and ability to foresee death Culture and self-esteem

Figure Overview of terror management theory

Contemporary Empirical Approaches: Terror Management Theory Increasing subjects’ mortality salience causes them to: –Punish moral transgressions more harshly –Be less tolerant of criticism of their country –Give greater rewards to those who uphold cultural standards –Respect cultural icons more

Culture and Personality Independent self Interdependent self

Figure Culture and conceptions of self