 War  Guerrilla war  Terrorism  Coups d’état  Assassination  Economic/property damage  Sabotage  Riot Continuum 1

U.S. State Department “premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against non-combatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience”. F.B.I. “the unlawful use of force or violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives”. U.S. Defence Department “the unlawful use of – or threatened use of – force or violence against individuals or property to coerce or intimidate governments or societies, often to achieve political, religious, or ideological objectives”. Official 1

1960s: the U.S. departments of state, defence, justice “a variety of criminal activity involving the unlawful use of force”. British government’s 1974 Prevention of Terrorism Act “the use of violence for political ends, including the use of violence for the purpose of putting the public or any section of the public in fear” vice-president’s task force on combating terrorism “the unlawful use or threat of violence against persons or property to further political or social objectives; usually intended to coerce a government, individuals or groups to modify their behaviour or politics”. Official 2

Hoffman “Terrorism is thus violence – or, equally important, the threat of violence – used and directed in pursuit of, or in service of, a political aim”.  Ineluctably political in aims and motives  Violent, or violence threatening  Aims at far-reaching psychological repercussions, beyond immediate victim or target  Conducted by an organisation with identifiable chain of command or conspiratorial cell structure. No uniforms or insignia  Perpetrated by sub-state actors Hoffman

Teichman  Often involves attacks on innocent or neutral parties, attacks on random targets or commercial targets, hijackings, kidnappings, and mutilation of the dead  Not necessarily always arbitrary or random in its choice of victims – sometimes targets carefully chosen specific victims  Should not rely on the concept of “causing terror”: many things cause terror. But “we will look pretty silly if we do not mention terror in our account of terrorism”. So the definition must include the idea that causing terror is a usual, but not invariable, feature of core cases of terrorism. Teichman

First stipulative approach: A tactic of armed struggle, that is lesser in impact than and more or less distinct from war, civil war and guerrilla war and is greater in impact than and more or less distinct from riot and sabotage, that involves the use of violence (in the sense of physical force) or the threat of violence directly or indirectly against non-combatants and/or property, in an attempt to antagonize, coerce, or intimidate (through the use of or the threat of that violence) a government, population (or section thereof), society, or alliance of states in the furtherance of a particular ideology or system of ideas (either political, religious or otherwise). Stipulative 1

Second stipulative approach: A tactic of armed struggle, which is lesser in impact than and more or less distinct from war, civil war and guerrilla war and is greater in impact than and more or less distinct from riot and sabotage, that involves the use of violence (in the sense of physical force) or the threat of violence directly or indirectly against either primarily military, paramilitary, or state security combatants (T1); against primarily non-combatant civilians (T2); or primarily against property (T3) in an attempt to antagonize, coerce, or intimidate (through the use of or the threat of that violence) a government, population (or section thereof), society, or alliance of states in the furtherance of a particular ideology or system of ideas (either political, religious or otherwise). Stipulative 2

 “Conventional” war (external: between states or alliances of states) [a]  Civil war (internal: between factions) [b]  Guerrilla war (internal insurgency against the state) [c]  T1 (primarily military targets) [d]  T2 (primarily civilian targets) [e]  Coups d’état [f]  Political assassination [g]  T3 (primarily economic/property targets) [h]  Sabotage [i]  Riot [j] Continuum 2

Primoratz: traits and features of terrorism that lead “most of us to view it with moral repugnance”. Meant to cause terror It represents purposeful, coercive intimidation Can’t have “nonviolent terrorism2 Fails to discriminate between the guilty and the innocent It is unpredictable: “One can never count on keeping clear of the terrorist by not doing the things the terrorist objects to: for example, by not joining the army or the police, or by avoiding political office”. There’s a distinction between political assassination and terrorism. Similarly, attacks on military targets aren’t terrorism. Not every act by a terrorist is a terrorist act. However, targeting of property, even when no lives are lost or injuries sustained, can be terrorist. If the property is necessary to sustain life, such as a well or a crop, the act threatens people’s lives. “The targeting of the innocent is the essential trait of terrorism, both conceptually and morally”. States can be terrorist Primoratz

Can a state can behave terroristically towards its own population – that is, use force to intimidate and coerce that population – without being ‘terrorist’? a) State-sponsored terrorism b) Own clandestine special units or irregular paramilitary forces to wage a terroristic campaign against the organs or population of another state c) State’s use of force against its own population or a section thereof: · Clandestine special units or irregular paramilitary forces to wage a terroristic or guerrilla campaign against a section of its own population, perhaps an ethnic or national minority · Wholesale use of its monopoly on legitimate force to violently repress its own population Does the argument for labelling such regimes ‘terrorist’ lie less in a desire for conceptual clarity and consistency than it does in the desire to extend the pejorative connotations of the term to regimes that are morally disapproved of? State 1

Carr Belligerent activity – a tactic employed in situations of conflict “Terrorism is the contemporary name given to, and the modern permutation of, warfare deliberately waged against civilians with the purpose of destroying their will to support either leaders or policies that the agents of such violence find objectionable” Carr