Middle Childhood: Physical Development Chapter Eleven Middle Childhood: Physical Development

What Patterns of Growth Occur in Middle Childhood? Growth spurt Height and Weight Gain a little over 2 inches and 5 to 7 pounds per year Boys are slightly heavier and taller than girls until 9 or 10 About age 11, boys develop more muscle and girls more fatty tissue Extensive individual deviations in height and weight Growing pains

Growth Curves for Height and Weight Figure 11.1 Growth Curves for Height and Weight. Gains in height and weight are fairly steady during middle childhood. Boys continue to be slightly heavier and taller than girls through 9 or 10 years of age. Girls then begin their adolescent growth spurt and surpass boys in height and weight until about age 13 or 14. Source: Kuczmarski et al. (2000, Figures 9-12).

What Patterns of Growth Occur in Middle Childhood? Brain Development Frontal lobe – executive functions Planning and self-regulation Cognitive flexibility Goal setting Fluid reasoning Information processing Teaching Tip: Invite a school psychologist to visit class and talk about the different types of intelligence along with the role of executive functioning in the education of children in this age group.

What Patterns of Growth Occur in Middle Childhood? Nutrition and Growth Children need to eat more to support the increased body weight and activity level Issues in nutrition during middle childhood Food offered to children in school Increased food portions Fast food restaurants Relationship between social class and nutrition Teaching Tip: Invite a local dietician to class to talk about the dietary needs of children in this age group. What recommendations would she or he give parents to ensure that their children are healthy?

What Patterns of Growth Occur in Middle Childhood? Gender Similarities and Differences in Physical Growth Through age 9 or 10, boys tend to be heavier and taller Until age 13 or 14, girls will surpass boys in height and weight

Vision and Hearing Myopia Ear Infections 25% of US children in middle childhood Corrective lenses or contact lenses Ear Infections Number of children affected decreases during middle childhood Teaching Tip: Ask students to find other common conditions related to vision and hearing problems. What treatments are available for these conditions?

How Many Children in the United States Are Overweight? 16% to 25% of children and adolescents in US are overweight Most overweight children become overweight adults Overweight children and adolescents Often are rejected by peers Perform poorly in sports Have poorer body images than children of normal weight At greater risk for physical health problems Truth or Fiction Revisited Children outgrow “baby fat.” (FALSE) In the United States, most overweight children become overweight adults. Teaching Tip: Have students explore the American Heart Association website for information on children and heart disease, children and physical activities, and other topics. Have them look under the section Children’s Health. Ask students to bring in recommendations for improving cardiac health for children in this age group. URL: http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/GettingHealthy/HealthierKids/Healthier-Kids_UCM_304156_SubHomePage.jsp Teaching Tip: Ask students to explore the Medline Plus website for causes and treatment of obesity in children. Have them share their findings in class. URL: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/obesityinchildren.html

Percentages of Children and Adolescents Who Are Overweight Figure 11.2 Percentages of Children (Ages 6 – 11) and Adolescents (Ages 12 – 19) Who Are Overweight. In arriving at these figures, the American Heart Association considered both body weight and body composition (amount of muscle and fat tissue). Source: American Heart Association (2009).

What Are the Causes of Obesity? Heredity Amount of fat cells Hunger drive is connected with quantity of fat in these cells More fat cells – feel hunger sooner Environmental factors Obese parents may model poor dietary and exercise habits Sedentary habits TV watching encourages snacking, exposes children to commercials for food, and is low physical activity Stressors and emotional reactions Truth or Fiction Revisited The typical American child is exposed to about 10,000 food commercials each year. (TRUE) Teaching Tip: Have students find other medical causes of obesity in children. Which of these factors are preventable, and which are controllable? Are there other factors that can not be controlled? Teaching Tip: Over a period of a few days, have students watch a variety of television programs meant to appeal to children. Students should document what types of messages children are receiving about nutrition and exercise, both in the programs and in commercials. Have students share and discuss their findings in class.

Choose My Plate choose MyPlate. 10 tips Nutrition Education Series. Making food choices for a healthy lifestyle can be as simple as using these 10 Tips. Use the ideas in this list to balance your child’s calories, to choose foods to eat more often, and to cut back on foods to eat less often.

Choose My Plate choose MyPlate. 10 tips Nutrition Education Series. Making food choices for a healthy lifestyle can be as simple as using these 10 Tips. Use the ideas in this list to balance your child’s calories, to choose foods to eat more often, and to cut back on foods to eat less often.

Childhood Asthma

Childhood Asthma Allergy-type respiratory disease More likely found in affluent countries, but More serious problem in poorer nations Risk factors of developing asthma (Martel, et al., 2008) Previous respiratory infections and skin irritations Family history of asthma Lower SES Teaching Tip: What advice would students give to parents regarding the prevention and treatment of asthma in young children?

Motor Development

What Changes in Motor Development Occur in Middle Childhood? Gross Motor Skills Increase in balance, coordination, and strength Connections between cerebellum and cortex become myelinated Reaction time gradually improves Fine Motor Skills Tie shoes and hold pencils as adults do Abilities to dress and maintain hygiene functions develop Teaching Tip: Have students observe children on the playground or during organized games, such as soccer. What differences do they notice in motor skills between boys and girls or between individual children? Students should discuss what they think might account for these differences?

Are There Gender Differences in Motor Skills? Boys show slightly greater overall strength More forearm strength – batting and throwing Girls show greater coordination and flexibility Dance, balancing, gymnastics Boys more likely to be encouraged in athletics Physical activity decreases with age in both sexes

Are Children in the United States Physically Fit? Most children in the United States are not physically fit Reasons for decline in fitness Watching television More focus on sports than continuous exercise Participation in sports declines after age 10 Fit children usually have parents who exercise and encourage them to exercise Participation in organized sports declines during middle childhood Truth or Fiction Revisited Most American children are physically fit. (FALSE) Most children in the United States are not physically fit. Teaching Tip: Ask students to add to the list of recommendations for parents. What are some ways parents can encourage physical activity in their children? Teaching Tip: Invite a middle school physical education teachers or coaches to come and talk to the class about their views on the physical condition of today’s children. What recommendations would they make to parents to encourage physical activity in their children? Do they think that the physical education programs in schools address the current needs for physical fitness in children? Why or why not? Teaching Tip: Divide students in two groups and ask them to debate the issue of participation in competitive sports for children in this age group. What are the pros and cons?

Disorders That Affect Learning

Characteristics of ADHD How Does Run-of-the-Mill Failure to “Listen” to Adults Differ From Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder? Characteristics of ADHD Developmentally inappropriate or excessive inattention Impulsivity Hyperactivity Onset occurs by age 7 Behaviors must persist for at least 6 months Impairs function at school Difficulty getting along with others More common in boys than girls Some argue ADHD is over-diagnosed and overmedicated Teaching Tip: Have students explore the Council for Exceptional Children website to learn more about disorders that affect children in this age group. Share and discuss their findings in class. URL: http://www.cec.sped.org/ Teaching Tip: Have students learn more about educating students with certain disorders on the National Association of School Psychologists website. Information regarding ADHD in the schools can be found as well as other articles for parents and teachers pertaining to the impact of disorders on learning. URL: http://www.nasponline.org

What Are the Causes of ADHD? Heredity Runs in families Coexists with other disorders Anxiety, oppositional defiant disorder, mood disorders, ticks Food coloring and preservatives are not responsible Inefficient inhibitory processes Lack of executive control in the brain Truth or Fiction Revisited Hyperactivity is caused by chemical food additives. (FALSE) Researchers generally agree that food coloring and preservatives are not responsible for the epidemic of DHD. Teaching Tip: Ask students to explore fads related to the causes and treatment of ADHD. Which, if any, of these fads have scientific backing?

Why Are Children Who Have ADHD Treated with Stimulants? Hyperactivity stems from inability of cerebral cortex to inhibit more primitive areas of the brain Block reuptake of dopamine and noradrenaline Stimulates the cerebral cortex Children with ADHD on stimulants demonstrate Increased attention span, improved cognitive performance Reduction in disruptive, annoying, and aggressive behavior Use of stimulants is controversial May suppress growth Lose effectiveness over time Truth or Fiction Revisited Stimulants are often used to treat children who are already hyperactive. (TRUE) Teaching Tip: Ask students to debate the pros and cons of using stimulants in the treatment of ADHD. Be sure and have them provide research support for their views.

Treatment and Outcome of ADHD Cognitive behavioral therapy is an alternative treatment Focus on self-control and problem-solving Some children “outgrow” ADHD At least two-thirds exhibit one or more symptoms in adolescence and adulthood Teaching Tip: Have students present information on cognitive behavioral therapy and reasons this type of therapy might work well with adolescents and adults with ADHD. Why might it not work as well with children?

What Are Learning Disabilities? Characterized by inadequate development of specific academic, language, and speech skills Problems with reading, math, writing Difficulties with speaking or understanding speech Problems with motor coordination Performs below expectations for age and intelligence Without evidence of other handicaps Usually persists throughout life Truth or Fiction Revisited Some children who are intelligent and provided with enriched home environments cannot learn how to read or do simple math problems. (TRUE) Teaching Tip: Invite a school psychologist and a special education teacher to come to class and talk about their experiences working with children with learning disorders. What types of educational strategies have they found to be most effective?

Dyslexia Persistent problem in reading Affects 5 to 17.5% of American children More common in boys than girls Treatment In childhood – remediation Later in life – accommodation Teaching Tip: Have students explore the international Dyslexia Association website to find current thoughts regarding causes and treatment. Would this website be useful for teachers looking for ways to work with children who have dyslexia? Parents? URL: http://www.interdys.org

Writing Sample of a Dyslexic Child Figure 11.3 Writing Sample of a Dyslexic Child. Dyslexic children have trouble perceiving letters in their correct orientation. They may perceive letters upside down (confusing w with m) or reversed (confusing b with d). This perceptual difficulty may lead to rotations or reversals in their writing, as shown the sample.

What Are the Origins of Dyslexia? Genetic factors Parent or sibling with dyslexia Neurological problems “Faulty wiring” or circulation problems in left hemisphere Angular gyrus - Difficulty associating letters with sounds Phonological processing problems Double-deficit hypothesis Deficits in phonological processing and in naming speed Teaching Tip: Have students discuss the possible social and emotional impacts on children who have dyslexia or other learning disorders.

Other Learning Disorders Mathematics disorder Problems understanding basic mathematical operations or decoding mathematical symbols Disorder of written expression Grossly deficient writing skills Errors in spelling, grammar, punctuation Difficulty in composing sentences and paragraphs

Communication Disorders Persistent problems understanding or producing language Expressive language disorder Mixed receptive/expressive language disorder Phonological disorder Stuttering Caused by interaction of genetic and environmental influences Teaching Tip: Invite a speech and language pathologist to class to discuss the types of communication disorders found in children in middle childhood. What impact do these disorders have on learning? What are some of the common treatments for them? Teaching Tip: Ask students to generate a list of social and emotional problems that may arise for children who have communication disorders. What type of counseling might help with these problems?

Segregation may negatively influence Should Children with Learning Disabilities Be Placed In Regular Classrooms? Special education programs created to meet the needs of children with mild to moderate disorders. Segregation may negatively influence Stigmatized among peers Teacher expectations Mainstreaming students Results are mixed Teaching Tip: Invite a special education teacher and a middle-school principal to come to class and talk about how they work with children who have certain disorders. What type of services are available in their school? What successes have they seen with their students? Teaching Tip: Have student learn more about the laws related to special education on the U.S. Department of Education IDEA website. Ask them to share and discuss their findings in class. URL: http://idea.ed.gov