 Roman Times: 1- Researchers mentioned that writings on translation go back to the Romans. 2- Cicero and Horace: first theorists who distinguished between word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation. They influenced the following generations of translation.

 Translating the Bible: 1- The Bible was translated from Greek into Latin. 2- The translation of the Bible remained subject to many conflicts between western theories and ideologies of translation for more than a thousand years. 3- These conflicts were intensified with the coming of the Reformation in the sixteenth century.

 15 th Century: 1- The invention of printing techniques developed the field of translation and helped in the appearance of early theorists.

 17 th Century: 1- The birth of many influential theorists such as Sir John Denhom, Abraham Cowley, John Dryden. 2- Distinction between three types of translation; metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation.

 18 th Century: 1- The translator was compared to an artist with a moral duty both to the work of the original author and to the receiver.

 19 th Century: 1- Conflicting tendencies; the first saw the translator as a creative genius, while the second saw him through the mechanical function of making a text or an author known. 2- Enhancement of Romanticism, leading to the birth of many theories and translations in the domain of literature, especially poetic translation. E.g. Edward Fitzgerald’s Translation of Rubaiyat Omar Al-Khayyam.

 20 th Century: 1- Studies on translation became an important course in language teaching and learning at schools. 2- Text-based model (focused on the text) and cultural model (focused on cultural understanding).

 Present Time: 1- Invention of the internet, new technological developments in communication and digital materials has increased cultural exchanges between nations. 2- Entering the world of cinematographic translation (audiovisual translation or screen translation). This technique is concerned with the translation of all kinds of TV programs. This field is based on computers and translation software programs, and it is composed of two methods: dubbing and subtitling.

 2 nd Century: 1- Syrians translated into Arabic a large heritage that belongs to the era of paganism. Syrians were influenced in their translations by the Greek ways of translation (more literal and faithful to the original).

 The time of Prophet Mohamed (peace be upon him): 1- The spread of Islam and the communication with non-Arabic speaking communities as Jews, Romans and others pushed the prophet to look for translators and to encourage the learning of foreign languages. 2- One of the most famous translators of the time is Zaid Ibnu Thabet, who played a crucial role in translating letters sent by the prophet to foreign kings of Persia, Syria, Rome and Jews, and also letters sent by those kings to the prophet.

 Translating Quran: 1- Early translators of the Koran focused on its meaning. E.g. Salman El Farisi translated the meaning of Surat Al Fatiha for Persian Muslims. 2- It was translated into Persian and into Turkish.

 First Abbasid Period: 1- Translation knew an enhancement with the Caliph Al-Mansour, who built the city of Baghdad. 2- Caliph Al-Ma'moun built 'Bait Al Hikma', which was the greatest institute of translation. 3- During the period translators focused on Greek philosophy, Indian science and Persian literature.

 Al-Jahith: 1- One of the greatest theorists in translation. His translation theories and writings are still used today by many professional Arab translators. 2- Al-Hayawān and Al-Bayān Wa Attabayyun.

 Mona Baker: 1- She distinguished between two famous methods in Arab translation: A- Yohana Ibn Al- Batriq and Ibn Naima Al-Himsi: literal translation(each Greek word was translated by its equivalent Arabic word). B- Hunayn Ibn Ishaq Al-Jawahiri: sense-for-sense translation (create fluent target texts that preserve the meaning of the original).

 Present Time: 1- Use of computers, digital materials and the spread of databases of terminologies that offer translators a considerable number of dictionaries. 2- There is still a big gap between Arab and Western world is still wide, regarding number of translations.