Welcome to Psychology 101 Instructor: Jennifer Leaver

Chapter 1 Introduction to Psychology and Methods of Research

Module 1.1 Foundations of Modern Psychology

Module 1.1 Preview Questions  What is psychology?  What are the origins of psychology?  What were the major early schools of psychology?  What are the major contemporary perspectives in psychology?

What Is Psychology?  The science of behavior and mental processes  What makes psychology scientific? Evidence is valued over opinion and tradition Evidence is valued over opinion and tradition  What is meant by “behavior”? Anything an organism does Anything an organism does  What are “mental processes”? Our private experiences Our private experiences

Early Schools of Psychology  Structuralism Wilhelm Wundt Wilhelm Wundt Edward Titchner Edward Titchner  Functionalism William James William James  Behaviorism John Watson John Watson B.F. Skinner B.F. Skinner  Gestalt Psychology Max Wertheimer Max Wertheimer  Psychodynamic Perspective Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud

Structuralism vs. Functionalism  Structuralism Task is to analyze consciousness into basic elements and investigate how these elements are related Task is to analyze consciousness into basic elements and investigate how these elements are related Wanted to identify and examine the fundamental components of the conscious experience Wanted to identify and examine the fundamental components of the conscious experience Used introspection Used introspection  Functionalism Task to investigate the function or purpose of consciousness rather than its structure Interested in what function psychological processes serve Used eclectic methodology

Contemporary Psychology  Behavioral Perspective Social-cognitive theory Social-cognitive theory  Psychodynamic Perspective  Humanistic Perspective  Physiological Perspective Evolutionary psychology Evolutionary psychology  Cognitive Perspective  Sociocultural Perspective

Module 1.2 Psychologists: Who They Are and What They Do

Module 1.2 Preview Questions  What are the various specialties in psychology?  What changes have occurred in the ethnic and gender characteristics of psychologists over time?

Types of Psychological Research Types of Psychological Research  Basic research: focuses on expanding understanding of psychological phenomena even if there is no practical application  Applied research: focuses on finding solutions to specific problems

Major Specialty Areas  Experimental psychologists Comparative psychologists Comparative psychologists Physiological psychologists Physiological psychologists  Clinical psychologists Role often overlaps with those of psychiatrists Role often overlaps with those of psychiatrists  Counseling psychologists  School psychologists  Educational psychologists

Major Specialty Areas (cont’d.)  Developmental psychologists  Personality psychologists  Social psychologists  Environmental psychologists  Industrial/organizational psychologists  Health psychologists  Consumer psychologists

Emerging Specialty Areas  Neuropsychologists  Geropsychologists  Forensic psychologists  Sports psychologists

Professional Psychology: Becoming More Diverse  Women pioneers Christine Ladd-Franklin (1847–1930) Christine Ladd-Franklin (1847–1930) Mary Whiton Calkins (1863–1930) Mary Whiton Calkins (1863–1930) Margaret Floy Washburn (1871–1939) Margaret Floy Washburn (1871–1939)  African American pioneers Gilbert Haven Jones (1883–1966) Gilbert Haven Jones (1883–1966) Francis Sumner (1895–1954) Francis Sumner (1895–1954) J. Henry Alston J. Henry Alston Kenneth Clark Kenneth Clark

Module 1.3 Research Methods in Psychology

Module 1.3 Preview Questions  What is the scientific method, and what are its four general steps?  What are the major research methods psychologists use?  What ethical guidelines must psychologists follow in their research?

Objectives of Science  Description Observations vs. inferences Observations vs. inferences  Explanation Purpose of theories Purpose of theories  Prediction  Control Help gain mastery and control over own lives Help gain mastery and control over own lives Includes control over variables Includes control over variables

Major Research Methods  Case study  Survey method  Naturalistic observation  Correlation  Experimental

Case Study Method  In-depth study of one or more individuals  Information drawn from interviews, observation, or written records  Problems with case studies: Limitations of memory Limitations of memory Withholding of important information Withholding of important information Concerns over making favorable impressions Concerns over making favorable impressions Interviewers may hear only what they expect to hear Interviewers may hear only what they expect to hear

Survey Method  Information gathered from targeted groups of people. Structured interviews Structured interviews Questionnaires Questionnaires  Goal: Generalize from sample to population Importance of random sampling Importance of random sampling  Potential problems Social desirability bias Social desirability bias Volunteer bias Volunteer bias

Naturalistic Observation  Direct observation of behavior in natural environment  Problems Observer biases Observer biases Possible unintended consequences Possible unintended consequences

Correlational Method  Used to examine the relationship between two variables  Correlation coefficient as a statistical measure of association Can vary from to Can vary from to  Limitation: Correlation is not causation

Types of Correlation  Positive Correlation  As the value of one measure increases, the value of the other measure also increases  Negative Correlation  As the value of one measure increases the value of the other measure decreases  Zero Correlation  When variables have no relationship at all

Benefits of the Correlational Method  Offers clues to underlying causes  Can identify groups of people at high risk for physical or behavioral problems  Increases understanding of relationships between variables or events

Causation  That which produces an effect or result without which that effect or result would not occur  Three conditions of cause: 1. Covariation of events 2. Time-order relationship 3. Elimination of other plausible causes or hypotheses in research

Correlation & Causation  Correlation  when changes in one event are accompanied by changes in another event  Causation  that which produces an effect or result

Experimental Method  Allows for investigation of cause-and- effect relationships  Variable- any measure condition, event, or behavior that are controlled or observed in a study Independent variables (IV): factors that are manipulated in an experiment Independent variables (IV): factors that are manipulated in an experiment Dependent variables (DV): outcome variables believed to be dependent on the independent variable Dependent variables (DV): outcome variables believed to be dependent on the independent variable

Experimental Method (cont’d.)  Controlling for placebo effects  Controlling for expectancy effects Single-blind and double-blind procedures Single-blind and double-blind procedures

30  Code of ethics E.g., when deception can be used. E.g., when deception can be used.  Ethics review committees  Important ethical requirements Informed consent Informed consent Confidentiality Confidentiality  Ethical guidelines for animal research Ethical Principles in Psychological Research

31  Study Hypothesis What they predicted would occur What they predicted would occur  Procedure What they did and how they did it What they did and how they did it The experimental design The experimental design  Results and Discussion What they found and what it means What they found and what it means Results of the study Results of the study References References Exploring Psychology: Anatomy of a Research Study: The Shooter Bias

Application: Module 1.4 Becoming a Critical Thinker

Module 1.4 Preview Question  What are the key features of critical thinking?

What Is Critical Thinking?  The adoption of a questioning attitude Careful weighing of evidence Careful weighing of evidence Thoughtful analysis of others’ claims and arguments Thoughtful analysis of others’ claims and arguments  Requires a willingness to challenge conventional wisdom and common knowledge

Features of Critical Thinking  Question everything  Clarify what you mean  Avoid oversimplifying  Avoid overgeneralizing  Don’t confuse correlation with causation

Features of Critical Thinking (cont’d.)  Consider assumptions upon which claims are based  Examine sources of claims  Question evidence upon which claims are based  Consider alternative ways of explaining claims

Thinking Critically About Online Information  Don’t suspend skeptical attitude when online!  Ask questions such as: Who is posting the material? Who is posting the material? Is the source a well-respected institution or one with no apparent credentials and perhaps an axe to grind? Is the source a well-respected institution or one with no apparent credentials and perhaps an axe to grind?  Most trustworthy online information comes from well-known scientific sources