Chapter 19 Waste Management Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Aluminum cans first used in 1965 Many advantages and became widespread What a Waste! Aluminum cans first used in 1965 Many advantages and became widespread Waste has become a widespread issue 2010: 1.54 million metric tons of aluminum waste in United States. Mining and refining aluminum uses energy and produces pollution Recycling greatly reduces these impacts © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

18.1 Wastewater Municipal wastewater treatment Sewage and other wastewater was dumped into waterways Treatment varies among developed and developing countries Municipal sewage treatment plants (MSTPs) Primary treatment Physical reduction Secondary treatment Broken down by microorganisms Tertiary treatment Reduces nutrient wastes © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. 3

On-site wastewater treatment Typical of households (25% in U.S.) Septic systems Underground tank Leach field Solids must be periodically pumped out Graywater Water from sources other than toilets and garbage disposal May be used to irrigate © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. 4

18.2 Solid Waste Municipal solid waste Quantities and composition differ region to region and time Paper products, yard wastes, food scraps, plastic, metal, rubber, and cloth Large increase in per capita production in recent history © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. 5

MSW The United States produces 11 billion tons of solid waste each year. Agricultural waste (50%) Residues produced by mining and primary metal processing (30%) Industrial waste - 400 million metric tons/year (3.6%) with a large toxic/hazardous part! Municipal waste - 200 million metric tons/year (1.8%) or 2 kg/person/day.

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The Waste Stream Waste stream is the steady flow of varied wastes we all produce. In spite of recent progress in recycling, many recyclable materials end up in the trash. A major problem is refuse mixing where recyclable and nonrecyclable materials, hazardous and nonhazardous materials are mixed and crushed together is the collection process.

WASTE DISPOSAL METHODS Some Current Methods: Open Dumps Ocean Dumping Landfills Exporting Waste Incineration

Open Dumps Open dumping is a predominant method of waste disposal in developing countries. Illegal dumping classifies as a type of open dumping. Groundwater contamination is one of the many problems with open dumping.

Sanitary Landfills Landfills control and regulate solid waste disposal with less smell, litter and vermin Refuse compacted and covered everyday with a layer of dirt. Dirt takes up as much as 20% of landfill space. Since 1994, all operating landfills in the US have been required to control hazardous substances. More than 1,200 of the 1,500 existing landfills in the U.S. have closed, and many major cities must export their trash.

18.2 Solid Waste Sanitary landfills Designed to prevent contamination of groundwater and reduce odors and aesthetic problems Lined with impervious clay and plastic Leachate Trash compacted and covered When full, capped with clay Methane produced May be tapped as green energy © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. 12

Incineration and Resource Recovery Incineration is burning refuse at high temperatures to reduce disposal volume by 94-95%. Energy recovery is possible through heat derived from incineration. Steam from this process can be used for heating buildings or generating electricity. Waste-to-energy facilities Refuse-derived fuel is when waste is sorted to remove recyclable and unburnable materials. This yields refuse with a higher energy content than raw trash. Mass burn means everything smaller than major furniture and appliances is loaded into furnace. It results in greater problems with air pollution. Residual ash has toxic components including dioxins. Facilities use filters and scrubbers to reduce emissions of pollutants High construction costs and environmental regulations have resulted in closures and waste exportation.

Mass-Burn Garbage Incinerator Initial construction costs are usually between $100 and $300 million for a typical municipal facility. Tipping fess are often much higher at incinerators than tipping fees at landfills.

18.2 Solid Waste Composting Uses natural decomposition Yard trimmings and food waste 25% of municipal waste Small-scale household composting can help shrink waste stream Some cities divert food and yard waste to a large-scale composting facility Generates revenue as compost may be sold © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. 15

Composting

Reducing the waste stream 18.2 Solid Waste Reducing the waste stream Multiple strategies for shrinking the waste stream and removing pressure from landfills Reducing waste Consumer choices Reusing waste Goodwill, Salvation Army Recycling waste Saves resources and energy © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. 17

SHRINKING THE WASTE STREAM Reduce, Reuse and Recycle (the 3 R's) Recycling is the reprocessing of discarded material into new, useful products. Reusing is a wash & refill process unlike recycling. Recycling success stars are aluminum & auto batteries. Problems include fluctuating market prices & contamination. Recycling is better than dumping or burning.

Recycling Benefits Saves money, raw materials, and land. Encourages individual responsibility. Reduces pressure on disposal systems. Japan (an island nation short on land) recycles about half of all household and commercial wastes. Lowers demand for raw resources. Reduces energy consumption and air pollution. Benefits Example Recycling 1 ton of aluminum saves 4 tons of bauxite, 700 kg of coke and pitch, and keeps 35 kg of aluminum fluoride out of the air. Producing aluminum from scrap instead of bauxite ore cuts energy use by 95%.

Ways Other Than Recycling to Shrink the Waste Stream Composting is the biological degradation of organic material under aerobic conditions. Energy can be obtained from waste. Demanufacturing is the disassembly and recycling of obsolete consumer products such as computers & household appliances. Reuse is exemplified each time you clean a bottle and drink from it again. A reusable glass container makes an average of 15 round-trips between factory and customer before it has to be recycled. Generating less waste by not consuming originally or using more compostable and degradable packaging.

Shrinking the Waste Stream Excess packaging of food and consumer products is one of our greatest sources of unnecessary waste. Paper, plastic, glass, and metal packaging material make up 50% of domestic trash by volume. Producing less waste Some environmentalists think that society currently places too much emphasis on recycling, thus ignoring better solutions such as reduced consumption and reuse.

Demanufacturing Demanufacturing is the disassembly and recycling of obsolete consumer products Refrigerators and air conditioners produce CFC's. The CFC's can be recycled, thus avoiding their release too the environment. Computers and other electronics produce both toxic and valuable metals A problem is that electronics that are turned in for recycling in the U.S. are sometimes dumped in developing countries where their components end up as environmental toxins.

Reuse Better than recycling or composting. Salvage from old houses is an increasingly popular trend in construction. Glass and plastic bottle potential for reuse is poorly realized. Large national companies favor recycling over reuse.

Producing Less Waste Reduction in consumption is the best way to reduce our waste stream. Excess packaging of food and consumer products is one of our greatest sources of unnecessary waste. Photodegradable plastics break down when exposed to UV rays. Biodegradable plastics can be decomposed by microorganisms. There are problems with photodegradable and biodegradable plastics.

Municipal solid waste management policy Policies and management set by city and county governments Federal government has some oversight 1899 Rivers and Harbors Act 1965 Solid Waste Disposal Act 1970 Resource Recovery Act Municipal decisions mostly driven by costs © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. 25

Industrial solid waste Waste streams vary greatly across facilities Usually collected and managed by private sector In United States, 7.6 billions tons of waste per year Some end up in industrial waste facilities Some end up in municipal landfills Industry seeks ways to reduce, reuse, and recycle at every stage of production © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. 26

Exporting Waste and “Garbage Imperialism” Although most industrialized nations in the world have agreed to stop shipping hazardous and toxic waste to less developed countries, the practice still continues. Within rich nations, poor neighborhoods and minority populations are more likely to be the recipients of Locally Unwanted Land Use (LULUs). Toxic wastes are sometimes “recycled” as building materials, fertilizer or soil amendments.

18.3 Hazardous, Electronic, and Radioactive Waste Hazardous waste Wastes that are flammable, corrosive, explosive, or toxic EPA categorizes three categories Source-specific wastes Nonspecific-source wastes Discarded commercial chemical wastes © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. 28

U.S. Hazardous Waste Producers

18.3 Hazardous, Electronic, and Radioactive Waste Current methods of disposal Permanent retrieval storage sites Special landfills that are monitored for leakage Chemical processing High-temperature incineration Bioremediation Living organism breakdown Superfund sites © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. 30

18.3 Hazardous, Electronic, and Radioactive Waste Electronic wastes (e-waste) Regulation only recent Broken or obsolete electronics Contain many heavy and precious metals Recycling less than 20% United States doesn't have national regulations European Union and some U.S. states have take-back regulations Manufactures must take back product at end of life cycle © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. 31

18.3 Hazardous, Electronic, and Radioactive Waste Require long-term monitoring Low-level radioactive waste Low amount of radioisotopes Greatest volume of radioactive waste Mostly from hospitals and labs High-level radioactive waste Spent fuel rods Most dangerous © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. 32

18.4 Managing Product Life Cycles Life-cycle assessment Method to evaluate environmental impact of product through all stages of life cycle Inventory analysis Inputs and outputs of energy, material, and pollutants Impact analysis Environmental, economic, health, social, and cultural impacts of inputs and outputs Improvement analysis Opportunities to reduce impacts © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. 33

18.4 Managing Product Life Cycles Reimagining product life cycles Industrial ecology Industrial system redesigned to mimic natural cycling systems Design for disassembly Circularize life cycle of components Extended product responsibility (EPR) Producers responsible for product through life cycle Take-back programs © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. 34

Hazardous Waste Disposal Legislation Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) Comprehensive program requiring rigorous testing and management of toxic and hazardous substances with cradle to grave accounting. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA or Superfund Act) Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) created a Toxic Release Inventory. The act requires manufacturing facilities to report annually on releases of hundreds of types of toxins.

Tracking Toxic and Hazardous Wastes

Superfund Sites EPA estimates 36,000 seriously contaminated sites in the U.S. and by 2000, 1,551 sites were placed on the National Priority List for cleanup with with Superfund financing. Superfund is a revolving pool designed to: Provide immediate response to emergency situations posing imminent hazards. Clean-up abandoned or inactive sites.

Modified in 1984 by Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA). Modified in 1984 by Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act. Aimed at rapid containment, cleanup, or remediation of abandoned toxic waste sites. Toxic Release Inventory - Requires >20,000 manufacturing facilities to report annually on releases of more than 300 toxic materials. In order to act the government does not have to prove anyone violated a law, or what role they played in a superfund site. Liability under CERCLA is “strict, joint, and several”, meaning anyone associated with a site can be held responsible for the entire clean-up cost.

National Priority List (NPL) & Brownfields EPA estimate: 36,000 seriously contaminated sites in the U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO) estimates that there are > 400,000 seriously contaminated sites NPL sites are waste sites that are especially hazardous to human health or environmental quality How clean is clean? Brownfields are large areas of contaminated properties that have lost their potential value. Because of the presence of assumed pollutants, the areas are considered liability risks. This business attitude discourages redevelopment and can be >30% of the land within urban areas. In many cases, property owners complain that unreasonably high purity levels are demanded in remediation programs.

Options for Hazardous Waste Management Produce less waste using 3 R's Physical treatments (isolation) Incineration Chemical processing (transformation Bioremediation (microorganisms) Permanent retrievable storage Secure landfills

When Hazardous Waste Management Options To Cleanup Fail, Storage Is Required Ways to Store Permanently are: Retrievable Storage Can be inspected and periodically retrieved. Secure Landfills Modern, complex landfills with multiple liners and other impervious layers and monitoring systems. To guard and monitor these sites for leakage is very costly.

Secure Landfills

“We abuse land because we regard it as a commodity belonging to us “We abuse land because we regard it as a commodity belonging to us. When we see land as a community to which we belong, we may begin to use it with love and respect.” Aldo Leopold