CHAPTER 11 Religion

The problem with the anthropology of religion is the difficulty of coming to a consensus on the definition of religion itself Virtually no universals Strong generalities Belief in the supernatural Incorporation of ritual Clifford Geertz (circa 1966) Religion is a system of symbols which acts to establish powerful, pervasive, and long-lasting moods and motivations by formulating conceptions of a general order of existence and clothing these conceptions with such an aura of factuality that the moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic A social process that helps to order society and provide its members with meaning, unity, peace of mind, and the degree of control over events they believe is possible

General Characteristics of Religion 1. Composed of sacred stories that members believe are important 2. Make extensive use of symbols and symbolism 3. Propose the existence of beings, powers, states, places, and qualities that can not be measured scientifically 4. Include rituals and specific means of addressing the supernatural

Cosmology and Animism Cosmology A system of beliefs that deals with fundamental questions in the religious and social order Allows for a degree of imagining and understanding the universe Animism The belief that all living and non-living objects are imbued with a spirit (soul) Often includes the belief in doubles Likely the earliest forms of religion

Cultural Evolution and Religion Edward Tylor Religion as explanation This may include the creation of the universe, the origin of society, the relationship of individuals and groups to one another, and the relationship of humankind to nature Death and dreaming Soul (or double) is active at night Death when soul leaves body According to Tylor, religion evolves through stages Animism Polytheism Monothesim Interest will decline as science grows

The Social Order Religion reinforces dominant cultural beliefs about good and evil Rituals Provide a rationale for social order Give social values religious authority Intensifies social solidarity Creates an atmosphere in which people experience their common identity in emotionally moving ways

Sacred Narratives Stories of historical events, heroes, gods, spirits, and the origin of all things Have a sacred power that is evoked by telling them or acting them out ritually Validate or legitimize beliefs, values, and customs

Religious Symbols Includes many different and sometimes contradictory meanings in a single word, idea, or object Example: The Christian cross Means life, death, love, sacrifice, identity, history, power, weakness, wealth, poverty The cross carries so many meanings; it has enormous emotional and intellectual power for Christians

Religious Symbols Some religious symbols may have supernatural power in and of themselves, such as the masks used in some African ceremonies

God (Deity) Term used for a named spirit believed to control some aspect of the world, or to be its creator An often eternal, omnipotent, supreme being High gods Often understood to be the creator of the world Present in only about half of all societies In about 1/3 of these societies, such gods are distant and withdrawn, having little interest in people

Polytheism The belief in many gods Usually control forces of nature India Some Hindu traditions incorporate millions of gods Three major gods Vishnu, Siva, Devi All Indians understand that in some way they are all aspects of one divine essence

Monotheism Belief in a single god One god may have several aspects Roman Catholicism God the Father God the Son God the Holy Spirit

Mana A religious power or energy that is concentrated in individuals or objects Gives individuals spiritual power, but can also be dangerous Belief in mana is often associated with an elaborate system of taboos, or prohibitions

Ritual Act involving the manipulation of religious symbols Certain patterns of religious behavior are extremely widespread, nearly universal Addressing the Supernatural: Prayer Sacrifice Magic Divination

Prayer Communication between people and spirits or gods People believe results depend on the spirit world rather than on actions humans perform Prayer may involve a request, a pleading, or merely praise for the deity

Sacrifice People try to increase their spiritual purity or the efficacy of their prayers by making offerings to gods or spirits People may sacrifice: First fruits of a harvest Animal lives Human lives

Magic An attempt to systematically control supernatural forces When people do magic, they believe that their words and actions compel the spirit world to behave in certain ways

Magic Imitative magic - the procedure performed resembles the result desired Example: Voodoo doll Contagious magic - the belief that things once in contact with a person or object retain an invisible connection with that person or object Example: Good luck charms

Divination A religious ritual performed to find hidden objects or information Culturally sanctioned method of arriving at a judgment of the unknown through a consideration of incomplete evidence Example: Spirit possession Tarot Cards Oracle at Delphi

Rite of Passage Three phases: Separation: Participants are removed from their community or status Liminal: Participants have passed out of an old status but not yet entered a new one Reincorporation: Participants return to their community with a new status

Collectiveness Religion is collective, social, shared, and enacted Communitas – intense feeling of social solidarity resulting from collective emotional intensity associated with worship Rituals and symbols put people in a temporary state of equality and oneness The wealthy and the poor, the powerful and the powerless, are equals for a short time

Rites of Intensification Rituals directed toward the welfare of the group or community rather than the individual Structured to reinforce the values and norms of the community and to strengthen group identity In some groups, they are connected with totems – an object, an animal species, or a feature of the natural world that is associated with a particular descent group

Religious Practitioners  Shamans  Recognized as having the ability to mediate between the world of humanity and the world of gods or spirits  Not a recognized official of any religious organization  Priests  One who is formally elected or appointed to a full-time religious office  Witches and sorcerers  Witchcraft  The ability to harm others by harboring malevolent thoughts about them; the practice of sorcery - the conscious and intentional use of magic  May be done unconsciously

Religion and Change Religions help maintain social order Energy can be harnessed for change or revolution Fundamentalists seek order based on tradition, yet also contribute to change To begin a new religion or modify an existing religion, prophets must have a code with three elements: Identify what is wrong with the world Present a vision of what a better world might look like Describe a method of transition from the existing world to the better world

Religious Movements Nativistic (Revitalization) movements – movements aiming to restore what its followers believe is a golden age of the past Example: Christianity’s origins Jesus under Roman rule Vitalism - a religious movement that looks toward the creation of a utopian future that does not resemble a past golden age

Religious Views Messianic A world-view focused on the coming of a messiah who will usher in a utopian world Millenarian The belief that a catastrophe will signal the beginning of a new age and the eventual establishment of paradise

Syncretism Merging two or more religious traditions and hiding the beliefs, symbols, and practices of one behind similar attributes of the other. Example: Santeria Slaves in Cuba combined African religion, Catholicism, and French spiritualism to create a new religion. They identified African deities (called orichas) with Catholic saints.

Cargo Cults Belief based around the expected arrival of ancestral spirits in ships Postcolonial adaptation The name derives from the belief that various ritualistic acts will lead to a bestowing of material wealth (cargo) In the United States and Latin America, millions of followers of prosperity theology, or the Word-Faith movement, believe that God wants Christians to be wealthy