Chapter 4 Understanding research philosophies and approaches

Understanding research philosophies and approaches By end of this chapter you should be able to: Define the key terms ontology, epistemology and explain their relevance to business research; Explain the relevance for business research of philosophical perspectives such as positivism, realism, pragmatism, and interpretivism; understand the main research paradigms which are significant for business research; Distinguish between main research approaches; deductive and inductive; State your own epistemological and axiological positions.

Figure 4.1 The research ‘onion’ Source: © Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2006

Understanding your research philosophy (1) ‘Research philosophy is an over-arching term relating to the development of knowledge and the nature of that knowledge’ Adapted from Saunders et al, (2009)

Understanding your research philosophy (2) Thinking about research philosophy Ontology: is concerned with nature of reality. Raise the questions of the assumptions researchers have about the way the world operates and commitment held to particular views.

Ontology The first aspect of ontology we discuss is objectivism. This portrays the position that social entities exist in reality external to social actors concerned with their existence. The second aspect, subjectivism holds that social phenomena are created from the perceptions and consequent actions of those social actors concerned with their existence

Ontology Blaikie (1993) describes the root definition of ontology as ‘the science or study of being’ and develops this description for the social sciences to encompass ‘claims about what exists, what it looks like, what units make it up and how these units interact with each other’. In short, ontology describes our view (whether claims or assumptions) on the nature of reality, and specifically, is this an objective reality that really exists, or only a subjective reality, created in our minds.

Ontology For the everyday example, they use the example of a workplace report – asking one to question whether it describes what is really going on, or only what the author thinks is going on. They go on to highlight the complexity that is introduced when considering phenomena such as culture, power or control, and whether they really exist or are simply an illusion, further extending the discussion as to how individuals (and groups) determine these realities – does the reality exist only through experience of it (subjectivism), or does it exist independently of those who live it (objectivism).

Epistemology It concerns what constitutes acceptable knowledge in a field of study. Closely coupled with ontology and its consideration of what constitutes reality, epistemology considers views about the most appropriate ways of enquiring into the nature of the world (Easterby-Smith, Thorpe and Jackson, 2008) and ‘what is knowledge and what are the sources and limits of knowledge’ (Eriksson and Kovalainen, 2008). Questions of epistemology begin to consider the research method, and Eriksson and Kovalainen go on to discuss how epistemology defines how knowledge can be produced and argued for.

Epistemology Blaikie (1993) describes epistemology as ‘the theory or science of the method or grounds of knowledge’ expanding this into a set of claims or assumptions about the ways in which it is possible to gain knowledge of reality, how what exists may be known, what can be known, and what criteria must be satisfied in order to be described as knowledge. Chia (2002) describes epistemology as ‘how and what it is possible to know’ and the need to reflect on methods and standards through which reliable and verifiable knowledge is produced.

Epistemology Hatch and Cunliffe (2006) summarise epistemology as ‘knowing how you can know’ and expand this by asking: how is knowledge generated; what criteria discriminate good knowledge from bad knowledge; and how should reality be represented or described. They go on to highlight the inter-dependent relationship between epistemology and ontology, and how one both informs, and depends upon, the other.

Axiology Axiology is a branch of philosophy that studies judgments about value. Although this may include values we posess in the fields of aesthetics and ethics, it is the process of social enquiry with which we are concerned here. The role that your own values play in all stages of the research process is of great importance if you wish your research results to be credible.

Axiology Choosing one topic rather than another suggests that you think one of the topics is more important. Your choice of philosophical approach is a reflection of your values as is your choice of data collection techniques. For example, to conduct a study where you place great importance in data collected through interview work suggests that you value personal interaction with your respondents more highly than their anonymous views expressed through survey data.

Understanding your research philosophy (4) Aspects of philosophy Positivism - the stance of the natural scientist Realism - direct and critical realism Interpretivism – researchers as ‘social actors’ Axiology – studies judgements about value

Positivism Positivism can be defined as “research approaches that employ empirical methods, make extensive use of quantitative analysis, or develop logical calculi to build formal explanatory theory”

Realism Is another philosophical position which relates to scientific enquiry. The essence of realism is that what the senses show us as reality is the truth; that objects have an existence independent of the human mind. In this sense, realism is opposed to idealism, the theory that only the mind and its contents exist

Direct realism and critical realism It says that what you see is what you get: what we experience through our senses portrays the world accurately. critical realism: critical realists argue that we experience are sensations, the images of the things in the real world, not the things directly. Critical realists point out how often our senses deceive us.

Interpretivism Interpretivisim advocates it is necessary for the researcher to understand differences between humans in our role as social actors. This emphasizes the differences between conducting research among people rather than objects such as trucks and computers.

Interpretivisim Interpretive research is concerned with the meanings that people attach to norms, rules, and values that regulate their interactions. Care is taken not to impose a previous understanding of norms, rules, and values on others but rather to understand their beliefs and actions from their point of view. The focus is not only on what they tell us directly about the reasons for their beliefs and actions but also on the social practices that underlie them. Social practice gives meaning to social action

Pragmatism Pragmatism holds that the most important determinant of the epistemology, ontology, axiology adopted is the research question.

Research paradigms Definition ‘A way of examining social phenomenon from which particular understandings of these phenomena can be gained and explanations attempted’ Saunders et al. (2009)

Research Approaches (1) Deduction 5 sequential stages of testing theory Deducing a hypothesis Expressing the hypothesis operationally Testing the operational hypothesis Examining the specific outcome of the enquiry Modifying the theory (if necessary) Adapted from Robson (2002)

Research Approaches (2) Characteristics of Deduction Explaining causal relationships between variables Establishing controls for testing hypotheses Independence of the researcher Concepts operationalized for quantitative measurement Generalisation

Research Approaches (3) Induction Building theory by – Understanding the way human build their world Permitting alternative explanations of what’s going on Being concerned with the context of events Using more qualitative data Using a variety of data collection methods

Choosing your research approach The right choice of approach helps you to Make a more informed decision about the research design Think about which strategies will work for your research topic Adapt your design to cater for any constraints Adapted from Easterby-Smith et al. (2008)

Combining research approaches Things worth considering The nature of the research topic The time available The extent of risk The research audience – managers and markers

Deductive and Inductive research Major differences between these approaches Saunders et al, (2009) Table 4.2 Major differences between deductive and inductive approaches to research

Summary: Chapter 4 Research philosophy relates to the development of knowledge and the nature of that knowledge contains important assumptions about the way in which you view the world

Three major ways of thinking about research philosophy Summary: Chapter 4 Three major ways of thinking about research philosophy Epistemology Ontology – objectivism and subjectivism Axiology

Summary: Chapter 4 Social science paradigms can generate fresh insights into real-life issues and problems Four of the paradigms are: Functionalist Radical humanist Interpretive Radical structuralist

The two main research approaches are Summary: Chapter 4 The two main research approaches are Deduction - theory and hypothesis are developed and tested Induction – data are collected and a theory developed from the data analysis

Chapter 5 Formulating the research design

The Process of Research Design Research choices Research strategies Time horizons

The research design needs Clear objectives derived from the research question To specify sources of data collection To consider constraints and ethical issues Valid reasons for your choice of design

Classification of the research purpose Exploratory research is a valuable means of finding out ‘what is happening to seek new insights; to ask questions and to assess phenomena in a new light’. Useful if you wish to clarify your understanding of a problem, such as if you are unsure of precise nature of the problem. It may well be that time is well spent on exploratory research, as it may show that the research is not worth pursuing!

Explanatory There are three principal ways of conducting explanatory research: A search of the literature; Interviewing ‘experts’ in the subject; Conducting focus group interviews.

Descriptive studies The object of descriptive research is ‘ to ‘portray an accurate profile of persons, events or situations’. This may be an extension of, or a forerunner to a piece of exploratory research or, more often, a piece of explanatory research. It is necessary to have a clear picture of the phenomena on which you wish to collect data prior to collection of data.

Explanatory research Studies that establish causal relationships between variables may be termed explanatory research. The emphasis her is on studying a situation or a problem in order to explain the relationship between variables.

Research Strategies Experiment Action research Grounded theory Survey Ethnography Case study Archival research

An experiment will involve Research Strategies An experiment will involve Definition of a theoretical hypothesis Selection of samples from know populations Random allocation of samples Introduction of planned intervention Measurement on a small number of dependent variables Control of all other variables

Research Strategies Survey: key features Popular in business research Perceived as authoritative Allows collection of quantitative data Data can be analysed quantitatively Samples need to be representative Gives the researcher independence Structured observation and interviews can be used

Case Study: key features Research Strategies Case Study: key features Provides a rich understanding of a real life context Uses and triangulates multiple sources of data A case study can be categorised in four ways and based on two dimensions: single case v. multiple case holistic case v. embedded case Yin (2003)

Action research: key features Research Strategies Action research: key features Research IN action - not ON action Involves practitioners in the research The researcher becomes part of the organisation Promotes change within the organisation Can have two distinct foci (Schein, 1999) – the aim of the research and the needs of the sponsor

Research Strategies Grounded theory: key features Theory is built through induction and deduction Helps to predict and explain behaviour Develops theory from data generated by observations Is an interpretative process, not a logico- deductive one Based on Suddaby (2006)

Ethnography: key features Research Strategies Ethnography: key features Aims to describe and explain the social world inhabited by the researcher Takes place over an extended time period Is naturalistic Involves extended participant observation

Archival research: key features Research Strategies Archival research: key features Uses administrative records and documents as the principal sources of data Allows research questions focused on the past Is constrained by the nature of the records and documents

The role of the practitioner-researcher Research Strategies The role of the practitioner-researcher Key features Research access is more easily available The researcher knows the organisation Has the disadvantage of familiarity The researcher is likely to their own assumptions and preconceptions The dual role requires careful negotiation

Multiple research methods Research choices Saunders et al, (2009) Figure 5.4 Research choices

Multiple research methods Reasons for using mixed method designs: Triangulation Facilitation Complementarity Generality Aid interpretation Study different aspects Solving a puzzle Source: developed from Bryman (2006)

Select the appropriate time horizon Time Horizons Select the appropriate time horizon Cross-sectional studies Longitudinal studies

Credibility of research findings Important considerations Reliability Validity Generalisability Logic leaps and false assumptions

Research design ethics Remember ‘The research design should not subject the research population to embarrassment, harm or other material disadvantage’ Adapted from Saunders et al, (2009)

Research projects can be categorised as Summary: Chapter 5 Research design turns a research question and objectives into a project that considers Strategies Choices Time horizons Research projects can be categorised as Exploratory Descriptive Explanatory Research projects may be Cross-sectional Longitudinal

Summary: Chapter 5 Important considerations The main research strategies may combined in the same project The opportunities provided by using multiple methods The validity and reliability of results Access and ethical considerations

Developing a Methodological Framework GreTIA Project

Motivation- CHANGE Integrated transportation and energy model framework (iTEAM, MIT - TRANSPORTNET 2009 )

Research Objectives Study the Northern Aegean region Plan an innovative green insular transport system by: optimising various appropriate resources (data collection, analytical tools) mobilising various transport modes and technologies Evaluate the environmental, economic and social impact of green transport policies Social objectives familiarize residents and tourists with operating practices of green transport cultivate new attitudes and behavior of travelers for green transport modes increase local prosperity, happiness, and sustainable development

Research Objectives for RESIDENTS Identify and quantify the factors that affect travelers decision making process towards: Car ownership; Residential/Workplace location; Mode choice; and Destination choice. Investigate individual activities and travel patterns.

Behavior Mismatch between residential location & job location(activity locations-housing proximity); Desire to live in low density environment and externalities of travel; Lack of alternatives to the private automobile and/or private motorcycle; What could happen if we are able to influence Residents and tourist in green option in a sustainable/green)community strategy vision?

Innovation (1/2) Merge ideas and methodologies from various sciences; Utilize state-of-the-art collection techniques and measurement tools: Behavioral data: on-line questionnaires, GPS devices, Headsets Emotiv Environmental data: direct point or line measurements of air pollutants, satellite observations.

Innovation (2/2) Advanced model development: travel behavior and activity based modeling microsimulation modeling transportation network simulation air quality modeling and spatial distribution of pollution Link tourism to transport; Financial evaluation of green policies; and Develop a policy analysis tools for an island environment.

METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK

Behavioral Framework Developed based: on the in-depth literature review and analysis; and on a priori assumptions.

Behavioral Framework Development of the behavioral framework based: on the in-depth literature review and analysis conducted in WP2; and on a priori assumptions