PSYCHOLOGY (9th Edition) David Myers PowerPoint Slides Aneeq Ahmad Henderson State University Worth Publishers, © 2010

Motivation and Work Chapter 11

Motivation and Work Motivational Concepts  Instincts and Evolutionary Psychology  Drives and Incentives  Optimum Arousal  A Hierarchy of Motives

Motivation Motivation is a need or desire that energizes behavior and directs it towards a goal. Aron Ralston was motivated to cut his arm in order to free himself from a rock that pinned him down. Aron Ralston AP Photo/ Rocky Mountain News, Judy Walgren

Perspectives on Motivation Four perspectives used to explain motivation include the following: 1.Instinct Theory (replaced by the evolutionary perspective) 2.Drive-Reduction Theory 3.Arousal Theory 4.Hierarchy of Motives

Instincts & Evolutionary Psychology Instincts are complex behaviors that have fixed patterns throughout different species and are not learned (Tinbergen, 1951). Where the woman builds different kinds of houses the bird builds only one kind of nest. © Ariel Skelley/ Masterfile Tony Brandenburg/ Bruce Coleman, Inc.

Drives and Incentives When the instinct theory of motivation failed, it was replaced by the drive-reduction theory. A physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need.

Incentive Where our needs push, incentives (positive or negative stimuli) pull us in reducing our drives. A food-deprived person who smells baking bread (incentive) feels a strong hunger drive.

Optimum Arousal Human motivation aims to seek optimum levels of arousal, not to eliminate it. Young monkeys and children are known to explore the environment in the absence of a need-based drive. Harlow Primate Laboratory, University of Wisconsin Randy Faris/ Corbis

A Hierarchy of Motives Abraham Maslow (1970) suggested that certain needs have priority over others. Physiological needs like breathing, thirst, and hunger come before psychological needs such as achievement, self- esteem, and the need for recognition. ( )

Hierarchy of Needs Hurricane Survivors Menahem Kahana/ AFP/ Getty Images Mario Tama/ Getty Images David Portnoy/ Getty Images for Stern Joe Skipper/ Reuters/ Corbis

Chapter 10: Motivation and Emotion

Motivational Theories and Concepts Motives – needs, wants, desires leading to goal-directed behavior Drive theories – seeking homeostasis Incentive theories – regulation by external stimuli Evolutionary theories – maximizing reproductive success

Fig. 10-1, p. 376

Fig. 10-2, p. 377

II. Motivation Concepts A. Motivation = a need or desire that energizes and directs behaviorA. Motivation = a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior B. Instinct Theory of Motivation: Human BehaviorB. Instinct Theory of Motivation: Human Behavior –1. Commonly associated with William James author of Principles of Psychology (1890) –2. Basic idea is that people inherit both survival and social instincts

–3. Influenced by the work of Charles Darwin –4. An instinct is a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned –5. Although Instinct Theory failed as an explanation of human behavior its impact is still felt in the underlying assumption that genes predispose species specific behaviors C. Instinct Theory and AnimalsC. Instinct Theory and Animals –1. In animals instincts are now referred to as fixed action patterns.

–2. Sign-stimuli = a biological trigger (color or shape) that initiates a fixed-action-pattern –3. Ethology is the study of animal behavior D. SociobiologyD. Sociobiology –1. The study of the biological basis for social behavior –2. Preserving our genes is the motivating factor. This has been used to explain everything from herding/mating to why men buy fast cars

E. Drive-Reduction TheoryE. Drive-Reduction Theory –1. Proposed by Clark Hull –2. Drive Reduction Theory = the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need

a. How it worksa. How it works –Biological need or tissue deficit leads to the drive state –Causes the person to try and achieve homeostasis or balance –Homeostasis = a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level b. Challenged by Harry Harlow’s “Mother’s Love” experiments because comfort was more important than foodb. Challenged by Harry Harlow’s “Mother’s Love” experiments because comfort was more important than food

F. Arousal TheoryF. Arousal Theory –1. individuals seek activities that maintain their desired level of arousal a. Individuals seek activities that create the desired level of physiological stimulationa. Individuals seek activities that create the desired level of physiological stimulation b. Individuals avoid activities that produce excessive stimulationb. Individuals avoid activities that produce excessive stimulation

–2. Yerkes-Dodson Law a. high arousal works best with low skill tasksa. high arousal works best with low skill tasks b. low arousal works best with high skill tasksb. low arousal works best with high skill tasks –3. opponent-process theory for acquired motivations = highs generate lows (Solomon 1980)

G. Incentive TheoryG. Incentive Theory –1. According to this theory motivation is produced by need for goal attainment. Drives = Push while incentives = Pull –2. An incentive is a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior –3. Need for goal attainment or achievement may be either intrinsic or extrinsic a. Intrinsic motivation = motivation based on internal need for achievement and internal reinforcements such as positive feelings of accomplishmenta. Intrinsic motivation = motivation based on internal need for achievement and internal reinforcements such as positive feelings of accomplishment

b. Extrinsic motivation = motivation is based on more tangible external reinforcements from the environmentb. Extrinsic motivation = motivation is based on more tangible external reinforcements from the environment –4. Over-justification Effect a. Occurs when extrinsic rewards are provided for a behavior that was previously intrinsically motivateda. Occurs when extrinsic rewards are provided for a behavior that was previously intrinsically motivated b. When this happens the behavior actually decreases (see notes from Unit 6)b. When this happens the behavior actually decreases (see notes from Unit 6)

H. Cognitive Consistency TheoryH. Cognitive Consistency Theory –1. Proposed by Leon Fetsinger –2. The theory states that motivation is produced by inner conflict this is called cognitive dissonance a. Cognitive dissonance occurs when beliefs and actions are in conflicta. Cognitive dissonance occurs when beliefs and actions are in conflict b. To eliminate the feelings of created by Cognitive Dissonance a person canb. To eliminate the feelings of created by Cognitive Dissonance a person can –Change actions to fit beliefs –or change beliefs to fit actions

I. Humanistic TheoryI. Humanistic Theory –1. Proposed by Abraham Maslow a noted Humanistic Psychologist –2. Suggested that behavior is motivated by a Hierarchy of Needs a. Hierarchy of needs = Maslow’s pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher level safety needs and then psychological needs become activea. Hierarchy of needs = Maslow’s pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher level safety needs and then psychological needs become active

b. May only move to next level after the previous level has been satisfiedb. May only move to next level after the previous level has been satisfied c. Can slide backwardsc. Can slide backwards d. Levelsd. Levels –Physiological Needs = hunger and thirst –Safety Needs = Need to feel that the world is organized and predictable; need to feel safe, secure and stable –Belongingness Needs = Need to love and be loved, to belong and be accepted; need to avoid loneliness and alienation –Esteem Needs = Need for self-esteem, achievement, competence, and independence; need for recognition and respect from others – Self Actualization = Need to live up to one’s fullest and unique potential “Be All You Can Be”

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs