Under attack: Where do theists go now? Abandon the argument Reject theism Base theism on Something else Personal faith Revealed theology Different theistic arguments Re-state the argument Reject / reply to Hume & Darwinian criticisms Reformulate the argument on a different basis Beauty Anthropic principle Argue for non-classical theology

F.R. Tennant and the anthropic principle Cambridge academic and clergyman “Nature is meaningless and valueless without God behind it and Man in front.” (Philosophical Theology, 1930) Tennant is arguing that humanity is at the forefront of creation, because the circumstances of the universe uniquely and surprisingly enable human life to emerge. Tennant was the first theist philosopher to use the fundamental characteristics of the universe as life- nurturing to offer a new form of teleological argument; many have since followed this path.

Anthropic reasoning From the Greek ‘anthropos’ (human/man); anthropic reasoning argues from the human perspective. Write down a list of the factors necessary for your existence. Reflect: are humans fortunate in having the conditions of life met? Is it surprising that the world is set up for life?

Weak and strong principles ‘Weak anthropic principle’ The circumstances in our universe are such that the emergence of life is possible. This could fit in with theism (God has enabled life), but does not so clearly suggest the idea of creation. ‘Strong anthropic principle’ The circumstances in our universe are such that the emergence of life is inevitable Theists could use this to argue teleologically, that God has intended a human life producing universe.

Anthropic teleological argument 1.The emergence of human life in our universe depends on numerous factors: planetary conditions, fundamental laws of physics, etc. 2.Human life has emerged in our universe. 3.A life-friendly universe such as ours is highly improbable; almost any other set of circumstances we can think of would have been life-hostile. 4.A designer or intelligent Creator would make sense of our improbable universe. CONCLUSION: God exists Rate my argument Convincing Unconvincing

A new design argument? Keith Ward “The argument in its seventeenth-century form … may have been superseded by Darwin. But the design argument still lives, as an argument that the precise structure of laws and constants that seem uniquely fitted to produce life by a process of evolution is highly improbable. The existence of a designer or creator God makes this much less improbable. That is the new Design Argument, and it is very effective.” But can you criticise Ward’s ‘new’ argument? Your criticisms:

Richard Swinburne One of the most eminent modern philosophers of religion is Richard Swinburne, Professor of Philosophy at Oxford (retired). Swinburne is the chief exponent of what Ward calls the “new design argument” – an argument which takes a different path from the pre- Darwinian argument of Paley. His argument is set out in The Existence of God. Swinburne begins by distinguishing between spatial and temporal order. ‘Spatial order’ is the subject of Paley’s argument – how parts are fitted together in an orderly way by a designer. Swinburne regards this argument as defeated by Darwinism.

Swinburne continued I pass on to consider a form of teleological argument which seems to me a much stronger one-the teleological argument from the temporal order of the world. The temporal order of the universe is, to the man who bothers to give it a moment's thought, an overwhelmingly striking fact about it. Regularities of succession are all pervasive. For simple laws govern almost all successions of events. In books of physics, chemistry, and biology we can learn how almost everything in the world behaves. The laws of their behaviour can be set out by relatively simple formulae which men can understand and by means of which they can successfully predict the future. The orderliness of the universe to which I draw attention here is its conformity to formula, to simple, formutable, scientific laws. The orderliness of the universe in this respect is a very striking fact about it. The universe might so naturally have been chaotic, but it is not-it is very orderly.

The God conclusion Given the striking pervasiveness of orderly laws of nature, Swinburne asks, how are we to explain the universe as we find it? Swinburne claims that scientists are able to define laws, say how they work, and discover new ones. However, what scientists may never do is find a basis for the most fundamental laws in the first place. In other words, the scientific method cannot explain why there is deep and fundamental order in the first place. If there is no possible scientific explanation for this, then we are required to look for another simple and elegant explanation – the most likely answer, he claims, is God.

Objections to modern design arguments Multiverse theory – there may be and may have been many universes, most of which are chaotic and do not sustain life. If there are many universes, the chance of an orderly universe emerging are not remote. Humans over-state their importance – famously put forward by the American poet Mark Twain. The world was not created as an amazing habitat for man; man exists because of the world, not the other way around. Rate Swinburne’s argument Convincing Unconvincing

Theological objections to design Finally, it may surprise you to know that some theists have objected to design arguments on theological grounds; they see these arguments as misrepresenting or diminishing the divine. A classic example of this is the great artist, poet, and mystic William Blake ( ). He wrote a work tellingly titled There is No Natural Religion (1788), which attacks the idea of the human senses encompassing the idea of the divine. Blake argues that “none could have other than natural or organic thoughts” if reliant upon sensory perception alone. This removes the revelation of a transcendent God from the heart of religion, which Blake did not accept.

Isaac Newton, by William Blake (1795) Blake’s opposition to natural religion is typified in his famous painting of Isaac Newton. Here, Newton is unflatteringly depicted at the bottom of the sea, fixed upon his mathematical drawings. Blake, a visionary, opposed the idea of religion being discovered materially and naturally, through science. The possibility of different types of perception of the divine are important for Blake: man “perceives more than sense can discover”.

Assessment (a)Explain how the teleological argument attempts to prove the existence of God. (25) (b)“Evolution leaves no room for a designer of the universe”. Discuss. (10)