Family JENNIFER L. FACKLER, M.A.

Families: Basic Concepts Family – a social institution found in all societies that unites people in cooperative groups to care for one another, including any children  Form around marriage, a legal relationship usually involving economic, cooperation, sexual activity, and childbearing.  Prevalence of Marriage in the US Prevalence of Marriage in the US  Families change as we grow older: F of Origin  F of Choice.  Families have become more diverse over time: F of Affinity.  Single Parent Families  Homosexual Partners  Unmarried Cohabitators  Which relationships are and are not considered family has important consequences (like benefits eligibility).  Census Definition – those linked by “blood, marriage, or adoption” Kinship – a social bond based on common ancestry, marriage, or adoption  Whom people call kin has varied throughout history and varies from culture-to-culture.

Families: Global Variations

Extended Family – a family consisting of parents and children as well as other kin  AKA Consaguine Family due to shared blood.  Common in preindustrial societies.  Modern US: Think of kinship in this way. Nuclear Family – family composed of one or two parents and their children  AKA Conjugal Family due to basis in marriage.  Common in industrial and post-industrial societies due to increasing social mobility and geographic migration.  Modern US: Carry out daily routines in this type of family.

Families: Marriage Patterns Cultural norms often dictate suitable marriage partners. Endogamy vs. Exogamy  Endogamy – marriage between people of the same social category  Passes along standing to offspring.  Maintains traditional social hierarchy.  This is one specific form of homogamy, marriage between people with the same social characteristics.  Exogamy – marriage between people of different social categories  Links communities.  Encourages the spread of culture.

Families: Marriage Patterns Monogamy vs. Polygamy  Monogamy – marriage that unites two partners  Polygamy - marriage that unites a person with two or more spouses; outlawed in many high-income nations (2 Forms)  Polygyny – marriage that unites 1 man and 2+ women Most common form!  Polyandry – marriage that unites 1 woman and 2+ men  The historical preference for monogamy is a reflection of two facts of life:  Supporting multiple spouses is very expensive.  The number of men and women in most societies is about equal.  Most of the world’s societies have permitted more than one marital pattern at some point.

Marital Form in Global Perspective

Families: Residential Patterns Societies also regulate where a couple lives.  Patrilocality vs. Matrilocality  Patrilocality – a residential pattern in which a married couple lives with or near the husband’s family  Matrilocality – a residential pattern in which a married couple lives with or near the wife’s family Both are common in preindustrial societies, but P is more common. Both offer protection, support, and assistance.  Neolocality – a residential pattern in which a married couple lives apart from both sets of parents Only possible if finances permit it.  What is the U.S.?  Neolocal, leaning toward matrilocal.

Families: Patterns of Descent Descent – the system by which members of a society trace kinship over generations Patrilineality vs. Matrilineality  Patrilineal – traces kinship through men  Fathers pass property along to their sons.  Children are only related to others through their father.  Matrilineal – traces kinship through women  Mothers pass property along to their daughters.  Children are only related to others through their father.  Both common in preindustrial societies, but P was more common.  Bilateral – traces kinship through both men and women  Common among industrial societies that have greater gender equality.  Children recognize people on both the fathers’ side and the mother’s side as relatives.

Families: Global Variations Patterns of Authority  Polygyny, Patrilocality, Patrilineal Descent  Reflect Patriarchy  Industrial societies, like the US, are seeing more egalitarian family patterns evolve.  But men are still typically heads of households and most US parents give children their father’s last name.

Stages of Family Life

Courtship  Traditional Societies:  Arranged Marriages – alliances between extended families of similar social standing Involve an exchange of children as well as wealth and favors. Romantic love has little to do with marriage. Parents often make arrangements when children are very young. Focus on cultural compatibility rather than personal computability.  Industrial Societies:  Extended family is less important and tradition is weaker.  Young people choose their own mates (based allegedly on “love”) and delay marriage until they have gained financial security.  Dating sharpens courtship skills & allows sexual experimentation.

Stages of Family Life Courtship (Continued)  Romantic Love – affection and sexual passion for another person  Celebrated by our culture.  Seen as the key to a successful marriage.  Helps couples get through difficult times.  Less stable than marriage for economic and social considerations because feelings can change. Explains the high divorce rate in the US.

Stages of Family Life Settling In: Ideal & Real Marriage  We have an idealized “happily ever after” picture of marriage.  Such optimism can lead to disappointment. Emotionally – fall in love with what we WANT people to be, not what they ARE (or people can misrepresent themselves)misrepresent themselves Sexually – marriage is not an endless sexual honeymoon  Infidelity – sexual activity outside marriage  92% believe it is wrong, but 13-21% engage in infidelity. Child Rearing  Preindustrial Times: Kids = Asset  Big families were needed to: Supply Labor Replace Those That Die  Industrial Times: Kids = Liability  Parenting is an expensive, lifelong commitment.

US Families

Share of U.S. Households That the Census Bureau Classifies as Families, 1950 and 2006 Families were a smaller share of all U.S. households in 2006 compared to 1950.

Family Form in the United States, 2006 All racial and ethnic categories show variations in family form. Source: U.S. Census Bureau (2007).

Gender & Family in the US Gender  Why do people think marriage benefits women more than men? Who does get more benefit out of marriage?  Bachelor vs. Spinster Stereotypes  Every marriage is actually two different relationships: a woman’s marriage and a man’s marriage because few marriages are composed of 2 equal partners (Bernard 1982).  Findings: Married women have worse mental health, less happiness, and more passive attitudes toward life than single women. Married men live longer, are better off mentally, and report being happier than single men.  Conclusion: There is no better assurance of a long life, health, and happiness for a man than a woman well socialized to devote her life to taking care of him and providing the security of a well-ordered home. Marriage COULD be healthful for women if husbands did not dominate wives and expect them to do almost all the housework.

Transitions & Problems in Family Life

Divorce  Divorce rate is 10x higher today than 100 years ago. Why?  Causes:  Rising Individualism – we are concerned about personal happiness and earning income rather than family and kids  Romantic Love Fades – relationships may fail as sexual passion fades and excitement is found elsewhere  Increasingly Independent Women – wives are no longer always financially dependent on husbands, so women can leave  Marriage  Stressful = working outside home + house work + raising kids  Divorce = Socially Acceptable & Easy to Obtain – no longer carries a powerful stigma; laws allow for easy divorces with no cause

Transitions & Problems in Family Life Divorce (Continued)  Who Divorces? – Risk Factors:  Young- Short Courtship Lack $ Low Emotional Maturity  Shotgun Weddings- Substance Abuse Problems  Children of Divorced Parents- Not Religious  Successful Careers for Both- Previous Divorce  Divorce & Children  Women typically care for the children, but are supported financially by men who pay child support.  Divorce can tear kids away from familiar surroundings, entangle them in bitter feuding, and distance them from a parent they love.  Many kids blame themselves for their parents divorce.  Changes the course of many kids lives. Emotional & Behavioral Problems Rising Drop Out & Crime Risk But may be better than keeping a “bad” family together.

Divorce Rate for the United States, Over the long term, the U.S. divorce rate has gone up. Since about 1980, however, the trend has been downward. Source: Munson &* Sutton (2008).

Transitions & Problems in Family Life Remarriage  Remarriage is common in the US.  Men are more likely to remarry than women (because marriage is more beneficial to men).  Often creates blended families, composed of children with some combination of biological parents and step-parents.  Challenge to define new relationships and define the family.  Relaxes rigid family roles.

Transitions & Problems in Family Life Family Violence – emotional, physical, or sexual abuse of one family member by another  Family is “the most violent group in society with the exception of the police and the military” (Gelles).  Often unreported.  Primarily perpetuated against women, children, and the elderly.

Alternative Family Forms

One-Parent Families  Represent 28% of families.  75% are single-mother households.  Related to poverty as a cause & effect. Cohabitation – the sharing of a household by an unmarried couple  US Stats : 500k  2003: 5.6M (9% of all couples)  Typical length is just a few years, at which time ~50% split up and ~50% get married.

Alternative Family Forms Gay & Lesbian Couples  Marriage is legal in many countries now as well as in Vermont, Connecticut, Hawaii and some large US cities.  Congressional law still defines marriage as between one man and one woman.  Trend in public opinion is toward greater support for homosexual relationships.  Vocal minority in opposition.  Many gay couples raise healthy children successfully.

Alternative Family Forms Singlehood  We tend to view singlehood as a temporary stage since 9/10 people in the US get married.  An increasing # of people are choosing to live alone.  1950: 1/10  2003: ¼ (29M adults)  Most striking rise is among single yo women.  1960: 28%  2003: 74%  The older a woman is, the more education she has, and the better her job…  The MORE difficulty she has finding a suitable husband! Why?  Because we expect women to “marry up.”

Theoretical Analysis of Families

S-F Analysis: Functions of the Family  1. Socialization – the family is the first and most important setting for child rearing  2. Regulation of Sexual Activity; Incest Taboo – a norm forbidding sexual relations or marriage between certain relatives  Cultural universal, but varies by culture to an extent.  Reasons for Incest Taboo? Can cause mental and physical damage to offspring. Limits sexual competition in families by restricting sex to spouses. Helps keep kinship ties clear and maintain the social order. Ties together the larger society by forcing marriage outside the family.

Theoretical Analysis of Families S-F Analysis: Functions of the Family (Continued)  3. Social Placement – help maintain social organization by allowing parents t pass on their social identity to their children  Rich white children learn how to be rich & white within the family. The same goes for other types of children.  4. Material and Emotional Security – offers physical protection, emotional support, and financial assistance  Family is the group we rely on when we are in need.  How about making babies? How about making babies?

Theoretical Analysis of Families S-C Analysis: Inequality & The Family  Property & Inheritance – Engels traced the origin of the family to men’s need to identify heirs so that they could hand down property to their sons; families concentrate wealth and reproduce the class structure in this way  Patriarchy – to know their heirs, men must control the sexuality of women so families turn women into the sexual and economic property of men  Racial & Ethnic Inequality – endogamous marriages promote the persistence of racial and ethnic categories

Theoretical Analysis of Families Micro-Level Analysis: Constructing Family Life  Symbolic-Interaction Analysis  Family living offers an opportunity for intimacy, aka “sharing fear”.  As family members share activities and interact over time, they build emotional bonds.  Social-Exchange Analysis  Courtship and marriage are forms of negotiation. Dating allows each person to assess the advantages and disadvantages of a potential spouse. People “shop around” for partners to make the best “deal” they can.  Gender roles dictate the elements of exchange. Men bring wealth and power to the marriage marketplace. New evidence suggests men can benefit financially from marriage.men can benefit financially from marriage Women bring beauty to the marriage marketplace.

Theoretical Analysis of Families

Families: Looking Ahead

Family life has changed quite a bit and will continue to change, ultimately generating controversy. The vast majority of people report being happy as partners and parents. There are a variety of family types globally and families also vary in the US. Families go through stages, but are typically arranged around marriage. The various paradigms ask different questions and explain marriage and family differently. Marriage and family are likely to remain the foundations of our society for generations to come. Questions?