Syntax 2 Ling400

Phrasal Categories A group of words that behave like a unitA group of words that behave like a unit A phrase is used as a constituent of a sentence.A phrase is used as a constituent of a sentence. English is claimed to have such phrasal categories as NP (noun phrase), VP (verb phrase), PP (prepositional phrase), AP (adjective phrase), etc.English is claimed to have such phrasal categories as NP (noun phrase), VP (verb phrase), PP (prepositional phrase), AP (adjective phrase), etc.

Noun phrases Can occur as the subject or object of a sentence.Can occur as the subject or object of a sentence. Bare nouns: proper nouns, plural and mass nouns such as Lynn, Chicago, plants, snowBare nouns: proper nouns, plural and mass nouns such as Lynn, Chicago, plants, snow Determiner + Noun (D+N) such as a train, my brother, the island, some banditsDeterminer + Noun (D+N) such as a train, my brother, the island, some bandits (D) + adjective + N such as my best friend, an early ferry, a big fat bone, white snow(D) + adjective + N such as my best friend, an early ferry, a big fat bone, white snow (D) + N + PP as the captain of a ship, the flowers on the green table(D) + N + PP as the captain of a ship, the flowers on the green table

Noun phrases (examples) a traina train ChicagoChicago LynnLynn FloraFlora Hudson St.Hudson St. the Beatlesthe Beatles some banditssome bandits another stateanother state An engineer Plants An early ferry My best friend Mrs. Jones A big bone Snow Animals

Other phrases VP: clearly sees some flowers, quietly put paper in the printerVP: clearly sees some flowers, quietly put paper in the printer AP: very pretty, extremely dependent on coffeeAP: very pretty, extremely dependent on coffee PP: on a green table, high over the doorPP: on a green table, high over the door

Why do we need phrases? The idea is that by using phrasal categories, we can describe the rules of syntax in a succinct manner.The idea is that by using phrasal categories, we can describe the rules of syntax in a succinct manner. What would happen if we didn’t use phrasal categories to describe rules?What would happen if we didn’t use phrasal categories to describe rules? There would be no structural ambiguity otherwise.There would be no structural ambiguity otherwise.

Ambiguity (three types) Lexical ambiguity (e.g. bank)Lexical ambiguity (e.g. bank) Structural ambiguityStructural ambiguity E.g. We need more intelligent administrators. “Scope ambiguity” (a tough one)“Scope ambiguity” (a tough one) E.g. Every boy likes some girl.

(More) Ambiguity Examples My son has grown another foot. [lexical]My son has grown another foot. [lexical] Will he need to buy his shoes in threes? Mary had a little lamb. [lexical]Mary had a little lamb. [lexical] Was the midwife surprised? Sisters reunited after 18 years in checkout line at supermarket. [strcutural]Sisters reunited after 18 years in checkout line at supermarket. [strcutural] Were they in line for 18 years?

What rules would we need? John slept on the couch.John slept on the couch. John likes Bill.John likes Bill. The man loves music.The man loves music. The girl likes the boy.The girl likes the boy. The architect built that tall building in 1995.The architect built that tall building in …… (endless)…… (endless)

Rules without phrasal categories S  Name V P Det N S  Name V Name S  Det N V N S  Det N V Det N S  Det N V Det Adj N P Name …. (endless)

Rules with phrasal categories S  NP VP NP  Name NP  Det N VP  V (NP) VP  VP PP PP  P NP (finite and more manageable)

Structural ambiguity again The price includes soup or salad and french fries Give an unambiguous paraphrase.

Phrase Structure Rules (slightly augmented) S  NP VP NP  N NP  Det (AdjP) N VP  V (NP) VP  VP PP PP  P NP NP  NP Conj NP VP  V (that) S () indicates optionality

Structural ambiguity The price includes soup or salad and french fries NmNm NP Conj soup or salad and french fries NmNm Conj N pl NP

Structural ambiguity The price includes soup or salad and french fries N NP Conj soup or salad and french fries N Conj N NP

PS rules account for the ambiguity We have seen that both structures can be produced by the same set of phrase structure rules.We have seen that both structures can be produced by the same set of phrase structure rules. A set of rules without phrasal categories cannot account for structural ambiguity.A set of rules without phrasal categories cannot account for structural ambiguity.

PS rules have a “recursive” nature Many PS rules have a phrasal categories on the right side of the arrow.Many PS rules have a phrasal categories on the right side of the arrow. By combining such rules, we can fine a rule or set of rules that apply “recursively”. That is, those that can be re-applied for any number of times. This results in a sentence that “never comes to an end”.By combining such rules, we can fine a rule or set of rules that apply “recursively”. That is, those that can be re-applied for any number of times. This results in a sentence that “never comes to an end”. E.g. NP --> NP Conj NPE.g. NP --> NP Conj NP

Wh Questions Sometimes, some expressions seem to occur in “the wrong place”:Sometimes, some expressions seem to occur in “the wrong place”: I bought a book. *I bought. *What did you buy a book? What did you buy? (makes sense if what is the “direct object” that is moved to the front of S.)

The main point A significant generalization is lost if we merely depend upon PS-rules to generate English sentences.A significant generalization is lost if we merely depend upon PS-rules to generate English sentences. Try generating the following sentences only with PS- rules.Try generating the following sentences only with PS- rules. John can eat fish. What can John eat? *What can John eat fish? *What will John disappear? John will disappear.

Wh-movement transformation John can eat fish. can John eat what? *can John eat fish what ? *will John disappear what? John will disappear. what is generated in a regular NP position and moves to the front of the sentence.what is generated in a regular NP position and moves to the front of the sentence.

WH movement S NP Mary VP V eaten NP what Aux has

WH movement NP What Aux has S NP Mary VP V eaten NP [what] Aux [has]

Subj.-Aux. inversion John can eat fish. John can eat what? *John can eat fish what ? *John will disappear what? John will disappear. auxiliary verbs are generated between the subject NP and the main verb.auxiliary verbs are generated between the subject NP and the main verb. subj and aux then switch positions in wh- questions.subj and aux then switch positions in wh- questions.

Wh-movement+Subj-Aux inversion S WH What Aux has NP Mary VP V eaten NP [what] Aux [has]

Two rules or just one? Just Subj-Aux inversion (1)Can Mary join us tomorrow? Just Wh-movement (2) I know who Bill met.