S ECTION T WO : S OCIETY Chapters 10 & 12

C HAPTER T EN The Structure of Society By Stuart Hall

O BJECTIVE OF THE C HAPTER : To understand that the structure of any society includes: Social Relations Social Processes Social Divisions Social Power

S OCIAL R ELATIONS Social relations is not about the individuals who are placed and positioned within a society. It is about people’s relationships and how these relationships affect their behavior and their attitudes. We have two kinds of people The Rebellious : These are the stronger, more oppressive people in the society and are called slave-owners. The Obedient : These are the controlled individuals, and are called slaves.

S OCIAL P ROCESSES Social processes are the activities that (1) reproduce overtime (2) keep going. All societies of whatever type have strong, persistent, regular sets of activities. ٍٍ Social processes in general maybe the same. This means that every society should have an economy, a government, etc. But each society has different structures of economies and governments.

S OCIAL D IVISIONS Social divisions: The positions occupied by the people in the social process. ٍ Social division is divided into: Social Division Explanation AgeThe old have more experience than the young. Sometimes, misunderstanding between generations has been a source of social tension. Race/Ethnicit y Inequality in terms of race and ethnicity happens when one group benefits more than the other because of its religion, colour, beliefs, etc… GenderInequalities in gender are related to the different positions and opportunities that can be suitable for men and for women.

S OCIAL P OWER Power is exercised within social relations, and through very different institutions in our society. The state has considerable power in political institutions. Those who own a great deal of wealth and money have economic power. Power is also evident between employers and employees, well and poorly educated, governors and the governed.

I S S OCIAL S TRUCTURE THE R IGHT W ORD ? One problem with the concept of structure is that it can be very static ( it does not change) Where have these processes, relations, and divisions come from? Agency Versus Structure: Agency : argument that individuals and groups are the ones that produce society. Process: how individuals and groups are shaped by society.

C HAPTER T WELVE : Changing Social Divisions, Class, Gender, and Race By Harriet Bradley

C HAPTER O UTLINE : 1. Theorizing Class: Marxist Versus Weberian Approaches 2. Theorizing Gender and the Labour Market

1. T HEORIZING C LASS : M ARXIST V ERSUS W EBERIAN A PPROACHES CTD … Weberian and Neo_Weberian Definition Marxists and Neo-Marxists Definition Class The Propertied classBourgeoisie: those who own the resources and modes of production The Upper Class Weber argued that class was created according to an individual's own abilities and skills and through this they would be rewarded by their income and status. His approach was more individualistic and allowed for a more flexible and less rigid class structure. The Petty Bourgeoisie represented the middle class. They were transformational, either heading towards the Bourgeoisie or the Proletariats. Working class is known as the Proletariats According to Marx, the working class is the only class that is capable of overthrowing the capitalist system. The Middle & Working Class

1. T HEORIZING C LASS : M ARXIST V ERSUS W EBERIAN A PPROACHES Neo-WeberianNeo-Marxist Class divisions are generated by the operations of the market itself. Class divisions are as a result of production and exploitation of the working class. Classes are seen as subject to growing processes of fragmentation The effects of exploitation of the capitalists to the working class are emphasized. Divisions and conflicts within classes seen as just as significant as conflicts between classes. The existence of fractions and conflicts within classes acknowledged but seen as less important conflicts between than conflicts between the Bourgeoisie and the Proletariats Middle classes are seen as an autonomous grouping and considered as socially significant as the propertied and working classes. Middle class seen as linked to one of the two major classes. Consciousness has many different sources including education, skills, innovation, etc. Consciousness arises from relations of production. Fragmentation, social mobility and growth of democratic political structures inhibit the growth of class consciousness Dominant ideology accounts for the failure of the working class to develop a critical class consciousness Class revolution is not going to happen.Revolutionary potential of the working class remains.

T HEORIZING G ENDER AND THE L ABOUR M ARKET : J OB C ATEGORIES 1- The Core: higher-status or most essential to the core activities of the business. 2- Peripherals : lower-status jobs requiring some degree of flexibility but necessary for maintaining and controlling levels of outputs or services. 3- Casuals : jobs filled by temporary staff, hired specifically in response to increases in customer demand for the end product or service.

2. T HEORIZING G ENDER AND THE L ABOUR M ARKET : F OUR T YPES OF T HEORIES : ExplanationGender?Economic Thought? Type of Theory Rational choices made by couples on the basis of family needs and resources. Women’s lower levels of training makes them confine to lower paid jobs. Neo-classical economic Human Capital Theory Serves capitalists needs for cheap disposable labour Women used as a labour reserve Marxist Reserve Army Theory Employers use labor market to divide and rule and to secure flexibility Women clustered in secondary labor market sectors Weberian framework and also used by Marxists Segmented Labor Market Theory Serves capitalists’ interests as cheap labor and helps secure continued male dominance. Gender segregation of jobs Marxist feminist Dual Systems Theory

C HANGING N ATURE OF THE U PPER C LASS : The upper class is split into two categories: Shareholders Managers. Shareholders owned companies but didn’t control them “capitalists without function” while managers didn’t own companies “functionaries without capital”. Capital and property ownership was spread over a greater number of people since the 80s and into the 90s, by an increase in home ownership The spread of share acquisition. A major rise in the percentage of shares owned by insurance companies, pension funds and unit trusts Scott states that the upper class is better represented as a structure rather than an identifiable group of people.

C HANGING N ATURE OF THE U PPER C LASS : Globalization is a threat to the Upper class because internationalization limits their influence on economy. Nowadays we can’t say that workers are exploited by the upper class as they barely even know their supervisors, especially with globalization. (depersonalization o f capital)

T HE W ORKING C LASS Sociologists developed the thesis of “embourgeoisement” in the 60s, the idea that the boundaries between the working class and the middle classes are breaking down due to: Social Mobility Rising income This was criticized by the Affluent Worker study (Goldthrope et al, 1969), the research showed that well-paid workers must be seen as a “new working class” with their own lifestyle.