SOCIAL LEARNING

A Different Kind of Learning Thus far, in our discussion of learning, the conditioning theories have focused on robot-like aspects of behavior. Classical and operant conditioning both emphasize the process of association or reinforcement and punishment when analyzing how we learn. However, both of these learning techniques ignore one important aspect of human behavior… and that is the human aspect. Thus far, in our discussion of learning, the conditioning theories have focused on robot-like aspects of behavior. Classical and operant conditioning both emphasize the process of association or reinforcement and punishment when analyzing how we learn. However, both of these learning techniques ignore one important aspect of human behavior… and that is the human aspect. Albert Bandura, a social learning psychologist, believes that somewhere between the stimulus and the response is a complex “inner person” who is able to analyze events and make decisions before the conditioned response is actually given. He felt that we needed a more complex explanation for behavior when we analyze group, or social, living. Albert Bandura, a social learning psychologist, believes that somewhere between the stimulus and the response is a complex “inner person” who is able to analyze events and make decisions before the conditioned response is actually given. He felt that we needed a more complex explanation for behavior when we analyze group, or social, living.

Social Learning and Observational Learning Social Learning – Learning from the behavior of others Social Learning – Learning from the behavior of others One type of social learning is called “observational learning” One type of social learning is called “observational learning” Observational Learning – a form of social learning in which the organism observes and imitates the behavior of others Observational Learning – a form of social learning in which the organism observes and imitates the behavior of others Basically, we learn patterns of behavior by watching others and deciding what to imitate. Basically, we learn patterns of behavior by watching others and deciding what to imitate. Process: Process: Behavior you don’t know how to do Behavior you don’t know how to do Watch someone else do it Watch someone else do it Repeat it Repeat it Examples: Dance step, bartending, sports skills Examples: Dance step, bartending, sports skills Important: Social learning refers to all learning in a social situation; observational learning is one of the processes used for social learning in which we observe our surroundings for cues on how to behave. Important: Social learning refers to all learning in a social situation; observational learning is one of the processes used for social learning in which we observe our surroundings for cues on how to behave.

Bandura's Experiments Albert Bandura's Bobo doll study (1961) indicated that individuals (children) learn through imitating others who receive rewards and punishments. Courtesy of Albert Bandura, Stanford University

“The Bobo Doll Experiment” Children between the ages of 3 and 6 Children between the ages of 3 and 6 Observed adult models playing with toys Observed adult models playing with toys Adult models were either aggressive or non- aggressive Adult models were either aggressive or non- aggressive Adult models were either the same gender as the child or different – are we influenced more by same-sex role models? Adult models were either the same gender as the child or different – are we influenced more by same-sex role models? Frustration created in child Frustration created in child Child brought to a room with both aggressive and non-aggressive toys and left alone. Child brought to a room with both aggressive and non-aggressive toys and left alone. Read “The Bobo Doll Experiment” handout posted on your school fusion page for a more detailed description of the procedures. Read “The Bobo Doll Experiment” handout posted on your school fusion page for a more detailed description of the procedures.

Results? Figure 7.17 The famous Bobo doll experiment Myers: Psychology, Ninth Edition Copyright © 2010 by Worth Publishers

Bandura Discusses His Experiment

Figure 6.26: Filmed models and aggression. Bandura, Ross, and Ross (1963b) found that acts of imitative aggression were most frequent among children exposed to an aggressive role model on TV whose aggression was rewarded, as predicted by Bandura’s theory of observational learning.

Albert Bandura (1977, 1986) Albert Bandura (1977, 1986) Vicarious Conditioning – In observational learning, vicarious conditioning occurs by an organism watching another organism (a model) be conditioned. Observational learning can occur for both classical and operant conditioning. Vicarious Conditioning – In observational learning, vicarious conditioning occurs by an organism watching another organism (a model) be conditioned. Observational learning can occur for both classical and operant conditioning. In order for observational learning to take place, four key processes are at work. In order for observational learning to take place, four key processes are at work. Attention – First the organism must pay attention to the model Attention – First the organism must pay attention to the model Retention – It must retain the information observed Retention – It must retain the information observed Reproduction – Be able to reproduce the behavior Reproduction – Be able to reproduce the behavior Motivation – Finally, an observed response is unlikely to be reproduced unless the organism is motivated to do so, i.e., they believe there will be a pay off. Motivation – Finally, an observed response is unlikely to be reproduced unless the organism is motivated to do so, i.e., they believe there will be a pay off. Bandura distinguishes between acquisition (having the response in your repertoire) and performance (actually engaging in the behavior). Bandura distinguishes between acquisition (having the response in your repertoire) and performance (actually engaging in the behavior). Bandura asserts that reinforcement usually influences already acquired responses(remember latent learning?), more than the acquisition of new responses. Bandura asserts that reinforcement usually influences already acquired responses(remember latent learning?), more than the acquisition of new responses. Observational Learning: Basic Processes

Imitation Onset Learning by observation begins early in life. This 14- month-old child imitates the adult on TV in pulling a toy apart. Meltzoff, A.N. (1998). Imitation of televised models by infants. Child Development, Photos Courtesy of A.N. Meltzoff and M. Hanuk.

Learning by Observation Higher animals, especially humans, learn through observing and imitating others. The monkey on the right imitates the monkey on the left in touching the pictures in a certain order to obtain a reward. © Herb Terrace

Observational learning occurs in both humans and animals. For example, the English titmouse has learned how to break into containers to swipe cream from its human neighbors and this behavior has been passed across generations through observational learning. In a similar vein, children acquire a diverse array of responses from role models.

Figure 6.25: Observational learning. In observational learning, an observer attends to and stores a mental representation of a model’s behavior (example: assertive bargaining) and its consequences (example: a good buy on a car). If the observer sees the modeled response lead to a favorable outcome, the observer’s tendency to emit the modeled response will be strengthened.

Mirror Neurons Neuroscientists discovered mirror neurons in the brains of animals and humans that are active during observational learning. Reprinted with permission from the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Subiaul et al., Science 305: (2004) © 2004 AAAS.

Positive Observational Learning Fortunately, prosocial (positive, helpful) models may have prosocial effects. Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works

Applications of Observational Learning Unfortunately, Bandura’s studies show that antisocial models (family, neighborhood or TV) may have antisocial effects.

Modeling Violence Research shows that viewing media violence leads to an increased expression of aggression. Children modeling after pro wrestlers Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works Glassman/ The Image Works

Television and Observational Learning Gentile et al., (2004) shows that children in elementary school who are exposed to violent television, videos, and video games express increased aggression. Ron Chapple/ Taxi/ Getty Images

Figure 7.18 Media violence viewing predicts future aggressive behavior Myers: Psychology, Ninth Edition Copyright © 2010 by Worth Publishers See Michael Britt’s powerpoint titled “Violent Video Games” (posted on your school fusion page) for a closer look at the evidence linking video games and violent behavior.

Figure 6.27: The correlation between exposure to media violence and aggression. The more violence children watch on TV, the more aggressive they tend to be, but this correlation could reflect a variety of underlying causal relationships. Although watching violent shows probably causes increased aggressiveness, it is also possible that aggressive children are drawn to violent shows. Or perhaps a third variable (such as a genetic predisposition to aggressiveness) leads to both a preference for violent shows and high aggressiveness.

TELEVISION AND OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING Children spend more time in their first 18 yrs. watching T.V. than they do in school Children spend more time in their first 18 yrs. watching T.V. than they do in school The average American that lives to 75 will spend 9 years staring at a tube The average American that lives to 75 will spend 9 years staring at a tube 2/3 of U.S. homes have 3 or more sets 2/3 of U.S. homes have 3 or more sets Parents reports of what their children watch do not correlate with their children’s reports Parents reports of what their children watch do not correlate with their children’s reports

TELEVISION AND OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING Dramas broadcast in the 1980’s and early ‘90’s: Dramas broadcast in the 1980’s and early ‘90’s: Only 1/3 of the characters were women Only 1/3 of the characters were women Fewer than 3% were visibly old Fewer than 3% were visibly old 1% were Hispanic 1% were Hispanic Less than 10% were married Less than 10% were married U.S. network programs offer about 3 violent acts per hour during prime time, and 18 violent acts during children’s Saturday morning programs U.S. network programs offer about 3 violent acts per hour during prime time, and 18 violent acts during children’s Saturday morning programs Real world = 87% of crimes are nonviolent Real world = 87% of crimes are nonviolent “Reality based” crime shows = 13% are nonviolent “Reality based” crime shows = 13% are nonviolent

TELEVISION AND OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING Average child growing up in the 1990’s viewed 8,000 T.V. murders, and 100,000 other acts of violence before finishing elementary school (Die Hard I = 264 deaths) Average child growing up in the 1990’s viewed 8,000 T.V. murders, and 100,000 other acts of violence before finishing elementary school (Die Hard I = 264 deaths) Study of 3,000 network and cable programs in 1996/1997: Study of 3,000 network and cable programs in 1996/1997: 6 in 10 feature violence 6 in 10 feature violence 74% of violence went unpunished 74% of violence went unpunished 58% did not show the victim’s pain 58% did not show the victim’s pain Nearly half involved “justified” violence Nearly half involved “justified” violence Nearly half involved an attractive perpetrator Nearly half involved an attractive perpetrator

Does the reel world affect the real world? In 1993 two British 10-year-olds murdered a 2- year-old In 1993 two British 10-year-olds murdered a 2- year-old Judge suspected that their exposure to “violent video films” was one possible influence Judge suspected that their exposure to “violent video films” was one possible influence Teen assassins killed 13 of their Columbine High School classmates Teen assassins killed 13 of their Columbine High School classmates Repeatedly watched Natural Born Killers and frequently played splatter games such as Doom Repeatedly watched Natural Born Killers and frequently played splatter games such as Doom

Does the reel world affect the real world? The more hours elementary school children spend engaged with media violence, the more often they get into fights when studied 2 to 6 months later The more hours elementary school children spend engaged with media violence, the more often they get into fights when studied 2 to 6 months later 14-year-olds who watch 3 or more hours of T.V. daily committed 5 times as many aggressive acts between than those who watched less than one hour 14-year-olds who watch 3 or more hours of T.V. daily committed 5 times as many aggressive acts between than those who watched less than one hour Homicide rates in the U.S. and Canada doubled between 1957 and 1974, coinciding with the introduction and spread of T.V. (the same has happened in other parts of the world) Homicide rates in the U.S. and Canada doubled between 1957 and 1974, coinciding with the introduction and spread of T.V. (the same has happened in other parts of the world)

BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION Using classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or social learning to change a person’s actions or feelings Using classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or social learning to change a person’s actions or feelings Token economy: giving tokens for desired behavior that can be exchanged for stuff Token economy: giving tokens for desired behavior that can be exchanged for stuff Bonus bucks Bonus bucks

BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION cont. SELF-CONTROL: SELF-CONTROL: Setting up a personal system of rewards and punishments to shape their own thoughts and actions. Setting up a personal system of rewards and punishments to shape their own thoughts and actions. Quit smoking, etc. Quit smoking, etc. Improving study habits Improving study habits

Figure 6.28: Steps in a self modification program. This flowchart provides an overview of the five steps necessary to execute a self- modification program. Many people are tempted to plunge into their program and skip the first two steps, but these steps are critical to success.

Figure 6.29: Example of recordkeeping in a self- modification program. Graphic records are ideal for tracking progress in behavior modification efforts. The records shown here illustrate what people would be likely to track in a behavior modification program for weight loss.

Figure 6.30: Selecting a reinforcer. Finding a good reinforcer to use in a behavior modification program can require a lot of thought. The questions listed here can help people identify their personal reinforcers. Smoking is just one of the many types of maladaptive habits that can be reduced or eliminated through self-modification techniques.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING FEEDBACK: FEEDBACK: Finding out the results of an action or performance Finding out the results of an action or performance Getting tests back Getting tests back Advice from coach / supervisor / etc. Advice from coach / supervisor / etc.

FACTORS cont. TRANSFER: TRANSFER: When previous learning affects new learning When previous learning affects new learning POSITIVE: old learning helps new learning POSITIVE: old learning helps new learning Musical instruments, video games, etc. Musical instruments, video games, etc. NEGATIVE: old learning hinders new learning NEGATIVE: old learning hinders new learning Keyboarding, driving in England Keyboarding, driving in England

FACTORS cont. PRACTICE: PRACTICE: Repetition of a task Repetition of a task Better to practice over a period of time than do it all at once Better to practice over a period of time than do it all at once Distributed practice (rehearsal) vs. massed practice (“cramming”) Distributed practice (rehearsal) vs. massed practice (“cramming”) Sports: 10 hours one day or 2 hours 5 days? Sports: 10 hours one day or 2 hours 5 days? Academics: 2 hours the night before the test or…15 minutes for 4 nights before the test? Academics: 2 hours the night before the test or…15 minutes for 4 nights before the test? We remember the 1 st 5 minutes and the last 5 minutes the best (study in 15 min. intervals). We remember the 1 st 5 minutes and the last 5 minutes the best (study in 15 min. intervals).