Chapter Twelve Middle Childhood: Cognitive Development

Piaget: The Concrete- Operational Stage

What Is Meant by the Stage of Concrete Operations? Beginnings of adult logic – Involves tangible objects, not abstract ideas Characterized by – Reversibility and flexibility – Less egocentric – Decentration

What Is Meant by the Stage of Concrete Operations? Demonstrate understanding of conservation – Object can have several properties or dimensions – Child can de-center and focus on more than one dimension Conservation of mass develops first

Conservation of Mass

What Is Meant by the Stage of Concrete Operations? Demonstrate understanding of transitivity – If A exceeds B in some property, – and B exceeds C, – then A must also exceed C Assess transitivity through seriation tasks – Systematically compare an array of objects – Decentration ability allows seriation in two dimensions at once Demonstrate an understanding of class inclusion

A Grid Demonstrating the Development of Seriation

Can We Apply Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development to Educational Practices? Learning involves active discovery – Find stimulating materials instead of imposing knowledge Instruction geared to student’s level – Consider the level of cognitive development Encourage development of perspective taking – Encourage group discussions and peer interaction

Evaluation of Piaget’s Theory Piaget tended to underestimate children’s abilities Development may be more independent and continuous Master different tasks within same stage

Moral Development The Child as Judge

How Does Piaget View the Development of Moral Reasoning? Two stages of moral development Moral Realism – ‘objective morality’ – Emerges at about age 5 – Behavior is correct when it conforms to authority or rules Rules are absolutes – Punishment is inevitable Immanent justice or automatic retribution Do not excuse accidental behavior

How Does Piaget View the Development of Moral Reasoning? Two stages of moral development Autonomous Morality – ‘autonomous reality’ – Emerges between ages 9 and 11 – Social rules are arbitrary agreements that can be changed Circumstances can require breaking rules – Consider the intentions of the wrongdoer Decentration and increased empathy – Develops as a result of cooperative peer relationships

How Does Kohlberg View the Development of Moral Reasoning? Emphasis on taking on the perspective of others Moral reasoning follows the same sequence in all children Three levels with two stages within each level

What Is Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development? Preconventional level – Obedience and punishment – Good behavior allows you to satisfy your own needs and perhaps, the needs of others Conventional level – Good-boy/Good-girl orientation – Judgments based on rules that maintain social order Postconventional level – Based on person’s own moral standards – Universal ethical principles orientation

Information Processing Learning, Remembering, Problem Solving

What Is the Difference Between Piaget’s View of Cognitive Development and the Information Processing Approach? Information Processing – Cognitive development akin to computer systems Information input, storage, retrieval, output Key Elements – Selective attention – Capacity for storage and retrieval of information – Strategies for processing information

Development of Selective Attention Pay attention to relevant features of a task – Ability to focus attention and screen out distractions improves – Attend to multiple aspects of a problem

Development of the Ability to Ignore Distractions

What Is Meant by the Term “Memory?” Storage and retrieval of information – Sensory memory Sensory register

The Structure of Memory

What Is Meant by the Term “Memory?” Working - Short-term Memory – Attention on a stimulus in sensory register – retained in working memory – Auditory encoding – Capacity 7 chunks (plus or minus 2) in adulthood Typical 5- or 6-year-old – works on two chunks of information at a time Reach capacity of 7 chunks of information by adolescence – Cognitive strategies used to promote memory Rote learning

The Long-Term Impact of Teachers

How Much Information Can be Stored in Long-Term Memory? No known limit of information Moving information to long-term memory – Rehearsal – Elaborative strategy – Extended semantic codes Organization in long-term memory Recall memory is improved by categorization

The Categorization Structure of Long- Term Memory

What Do Children Understand About the Functioning of Their Cognitive Processes and Their Memory? Metacognition – Knowledge and control of cognitive abilities Metamemory – Children’s awareness of the functioning of their memory As children develop they utilize more strategies for memory

Intellectual Development, Creativity, and Achievement

What Is Intelligence? Achievement – What a child has learned – Specific content area Intelligence – Child’s underlying learning ability – Cognitive basis for academic achievement

Theories of Intelligence

What Are “Factor Theories” of Intelligence? Behaviors we consider intelligent have a common factor – Spearman g or “general intelligence” Broad reasoning and problem solving – S or “specific capacities” Individual abilities – Factor Analysis Primary Mental Abilities - Thurstone

What is Sternberg’s Triarchic Model of Intelligence? Three Prong Theory of Intelligence Analytical intelligence – Academic ability Creative intelligence – Ability to cope with novel situations Practical intelligence – Ability to adapt to demands of the environment

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

What is Meant by Multiple Intelligences? Different kinds of intelligence (Gardner) Can be advanced in one kind of intelligence and deficient in others – Critics question whether special talents represent an intelligence

Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Emotional and Social Intelligence Emotional intelligence (Salovey & Mayer) – Recognition and control of one’s feelings Social intelligence – Ability to read social concerns of others and respond appropriately

Measurement of Intellectual Development Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (SBIS) – Binet-Simon scale Assumed intelligence increases with age Older child must answer more items to obtain comparable score to younger child (mental age) Yielded a score – mental age (MA) – Terman adapted Binet-Simon to become Stanford- Binet Yields a score – intelligence quotient (IQ) Based on chronological age and mental age – Today IQ scores are derived by comparing performance to age appropriate norms with an average score of 100

Measurement of Intellectual Development Wechsler Scales – Subtests measure different intellectual tasks Compares performance on one type of task with another – Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scales of Intelligence (WPPSI) – Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children (WISC) – Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scales (WAIS)

Performance Items on an Intelligence Test

Variations in IQ Scores

The Testing Controversy IQ test scores – Should not be sole criteria for placement – Accurately measure skills necessary in today’s high tech work Culture-bias versus Culture-free – Bias for African American and lower social class – Cattell’s Culture-Fair Intelligence Test Culture-free tests have not been successful – Disadvantaged children consistently score lower – Do not predict academic success

Sample Items From Cattell’s Culture- Fair Intelligence Test

How Does Intelligence Develop? Advances in middle childhood – Symbolize experiences and manipulate symbols – Vocabulary development – Increase logical and complex thought Two major spurts – About age 6 – entry to school – About age 10 or 11 Predictive power increases during middle childhood

Five Patterns of Change in IQ Scores for Children in the Fels Longitudinal Study

Differences in Intellectual Development Intellectual Disability – Significant limitations which are apparent before age 18 – Mental Retardation IQ scores of 70 to 75 – Mildly disabled Capable of adjusting to educational institutions and society – Down’s syndrome Moderately retarded – Biological causes of intellectual disability Cultural-familial disability

Differences in Intellectual Development Giftedness – Outstanding abilities and high performance In specific academic area Leadership, arts, or bodily talents

What Is Creativity? Ability to do things novel and useful – Solve problems without expected solutions Creative children – Take chances – Refuse to accept limitations – Appreciate art and music – Use available materials to make unique things – Challenge social norms – Take unpopular stands – Question ideas

What Is the Relationship Between Creativity and Intelligence? Creativity overlaps with intelligence – Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory includes creative intelligence – Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences include creative areas Explanation for lack of relationship – Intelligence testing requires convergent thinking – Creative thinking requires divergent thinking

What Are the Roles of Nature and Nurture in the Development of Intelligence? Genetic Influences – Measured through kinship and adoption studies – More closely related – more similar IQ scores – Heritability – about 40 to 60% Environmental Influences – Some studies consider Situational factors that affect IQ testing Stereotype vulnerability Exploring ability to rebound from early deprivation Effects of positive early environments

Findings of Studies of the Relationship Between IQ Scores and Heredity

Language Development

How Does Language Develop in Middle Childhood? Vocabulary and Grammar – Vocabulary expands – Articulation and complex grammar improves Correct use and comprehension of passive sentences Use connectives Direct object – Indirect object constructions

What Cognitive Skills Are Used in Reading? Reading demands perceptual, cognitive, and linguistic processes – Integrate visual and auditory information – Able to make basic visual discriminations Reading to preschool children – prepares them for reading

Methods of Teaching Reading Whole-language approach – Associate visual stimuli with sound of spoken word – Acquired by rote learning Phonetic method – Associate letters with sounds they indicate – sound out words Most children utilize both methods – Whole-language for basic sight vocabulary – Phonetic method for decoding new words

What Does the Research Reveal About the Advantages and Disadvantages of Bilingualism? Bilingual children have more cognitive flexibility – Aware of different cultures – broadens perspectives Learning a second language increases expertise in first language