The Method of Scientific Investigation

Ⅰ Suppose you go into a fruit shop, wanting an apple. You take up one, and on biting it you find it is sour; you look at it and see that it is hard and green. You take up another one, and that too is hard, green, and sour. The shop man offers you a third; but before biting it you examine it and find that it is hard and green, and you immediately say that you will not have it, as it must be sour like those that you have already tried.take up Pay attention to the use of “on”

Par. 1 The experience of buying apples in a fruit shop. The hard and green apples must be sour. induction

induce: to infer by inductive reasoning. induction: the process of deriving general principles from particular facts or instances. ant. deduce & deduction 演绎推理

Ⅱ Nothing can be more simple than that, you think; but if you will take the trouble to analyze and trace out into its logical elements what has been done by the mind, you will be greatly surprised. In the first place you have performed the operation of induction... trace out : to locate or discover the trail of; to describe or portray sth. logic : n. philosophy of reasoning ; reasoned thoughts e.g. If prices go up, wages go up---that’s logic! You have to admit the logic of his argument. There’s no logic in spending on useless things.

You found that in two experiences hardness and greenness in apples go together with sourness. It was so in the first case, and it was confirmed by the second. True, it is a very small basis, but still it is enough to make an induction from; you generalize the facts, and you expect to find sourness in apples where you get hardness and greenness. go together with: match or be the company of hard & green apples are always sour. confirm : V. to verify the certainty or the validity

Please confirm your telephone message by writing to me. My employer will confirm that I was there on time. confirmed : adj. Having been verified; Being firmly settled in habit a confirmed drunkard a confirmed disease a confirmed criminal a confirmed habit a confirmed report a confirmed invalid

You found upon that a general law that all hard and green apples are sour; and that, so far as it goes, is a perfect induction. Well, having got your natural law in this way, when you are offered another apple which you find hard and green, you say, "All hard and green apples are sour; this apple is hard and green, therefore this apple is sour." That train of reasoning is How to understand the use of “that”? 1st “that” : the basis mentioned before 2nd “that” : appositive clause 3rd “that” : a general law chain or series of to a limited extent

what logicians call a syllogism and has all its various parts and terms--its major premise, its minor premise, and its conclusion. And by the help of further reasoning, which if drawn out would have been exhibited in two or three other syllogisms, you arrive at your final determination, "I will not have that apple."syllogism attributive clause to modify “ further reasoning”. draw out : 引申 determination: firm intention; act of deciding e.g. She is responsible for the determination of wage levels within this company.

You have, in the first place, established a law by induction, and upon that you have deduced and reasoned out the special conclusion of the particular case. Well now, suppose, having got your law, that at some time afterwards you are discussing the qualities of apples with a friend, you will say to him, "It is a very curious thing, but I find that all hard and green apples are sour!“ Your friend says to you, "But how do you know that?" You at once reply, "Oh, because I have tried them over and over again and have always found them to be. so." Well, if we were some time later The process of a whole reasoning

talking science instead of common sense, we should call that an experimental verification. And if still opposed you go further and say, "I have, heard from the people in Somersetshire and Devonshire, where a large number of apples are grown, that they have observed the same thing. It is also found to be the case in Normandy and in North America. In short, I find it to be the universal experience of mankind wherever attention has been directed to the subject." 实验验证 Which part has been omitted? Paraphrase?

Paraphrase: In brief, I find that no matter in which part of the world, if people pay attention to this subject, they will all get the same experience as mine. Next

Whereupon your friend, unless he is a very unreasonable man, agrees with you and is convinced that you are quite right in the conclusion you have drawn. He believes, ｛ although perhaps he does not know he believes it, ｝ that the more extensive verifications are, that the more frequently experiments have been made and results of the same kind arrived at, that the more varied the conditions under which the same results have been attained, the more certain is the ultimate conclusion, and he disputes the question no further. How to paraphrase this long sentence?

the more extensive verifications are ① the more frequently experiments have been made & results of the same kind arrived at ② the more varied the conditions ③ the more certain is the ultimate conclusion ④

He sees that the experiment has been tried under all sorts of conditions as to time, place, and people with the same result; and he says with you, therefore, that the law you have laid down must be a good one and he must believe it. lay down : to establish, to declare or state firmly e.g. The law lays it down that speed limits must be obeyed. We had to lay down rules for the behavior of the club members. The policy had been laid down and agreed for years.

Par 2: How to reach a conclusion. Conclusions come from induction, deduction, and experimental verification.

Ⅲ In science we do the same thing; the philosophers exercises precisely the same faculties, though in a much more delicate manner. In scientific inquiry it becomes a matter of duty to expose a supposed law to every possible kind of verification, and to take care, moreover, that this is done intentionally and not left to mere accident as in the case of the apples. And in science, mental power careful a matter of duty to expose … to take care

as in common life, our confidence in a law is in exact proportion to the absence of variation in the result of our experimental verifications. For instance, if you let your grasp of an article you may have in your hand, it will immediately fall to the ground. That is a very, common verification of one of the best established laws of nature, that of gravitation. The method by in proportion to : according to; at the rate of e.g. The tax increases in proportion to the amount you earn How to understand the underlined sentence? go 万有引力定律

which men of science established the existence of the law is exactly the same as that by which we have established the trivial proposition about the sourness of hard and green apples. But we believe it in such an extensive, thorough, and unhesitating manner because the universal experience of mankind verifies it, and we can verify it ourselves at any time; and that is the strongest possible foundation (on which any natural law can rest.) 通俗命题 scientists rest on / rest in

Par 3: The same reasoning and verification must be carried out in science.

explanation of this sentence: Our confidence in a law is determined by the result of experimental verifications. The less difference in the result, the greater confidence we have.

Syllogism : A form of deductive reasoning consisting of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion; For example, All human beings are mortal, the major premise, I am a human being, the minor premise, therefore, I am mortal, the conclusion.

Experience in buying apples Process analysis Performance of the process in science 1) syllogism 2) Inductive reasoning 3) Deductive reasoning 4) Experimental verification

take up: 1) 拿起，拾起 2) 开始从事；专注于 He took up art while at school. 3) 继续；接下去 to take up one's story take up with 与（人）交往

To His Coy Mistress

Had we but world enough, and time, This coyness, lady, were no crime. We would sit down and think which way To walk, and pass our long love's day; Thou by the Indian Ganges' side Shouldst rubies find; I by the tide Of Humber would complain. I would Love you ten years before the Flood; And you should, if you please, refuse Till the conversion of the Jews. My vegetable love should grow Vaster than empires, and more slow.

An hundred years should go to praise Thine eyes, and on thy forehead gaze; Two hundred to adore each breast, But thirty thousand to the rest; An age at least to every part, And the last age should show your heart. For, lady, you deserve this state, Nor would I love at lower rate.

But at my back I always hear Time's winged chariot hurrying near; And yonder all before us lie Deserts of vast eternity. Thy beauty shall no more be found, Nor, in thy marble vault, shall sound My echoing song; then worms shall try That long preserv'd virginity, And your quaint honour turn to dust, And into ashes all my lust. The grave's a fine and private place, But none I think do there embrace.

Now therefore, while the youthful hue Sits on thy skin like morning dew, And while thy willing soul transpires At every pore with instant fires, Now let us sport us while we may; And now, like am'rous birds of prey, Rather at once our time devour, Than languish in his slow-chapp'd power. Let us roll all our strength, and all Our sweetness, up into one ball; And tear our pleasures with rough strife Thorough the iron gates of life. Thus, though we cannot make our sun Stand still, yet we will make him run.