Motivation Questionnaires Motivation to Manage CLASS MEAN HISTORICAL MEAN CLASS MEAN HISTORICAL MEAN ERG CLASS MEAN HISTORICAL MEAN CLASS MEAN HISTORICAL MEAN E E R 1515 R 1515 G 1616 G 1616

PROCESS THEORIES n Equity Theory n Expectancy Theory n Goal-Setting Theory (Ch. 6)

Equity Theory Concepts n Inputs u employee contributions to the organization n Outcomes u rewards employees receive from the organization n Referent Persons u comparison others n Outcome/Input (O/I) ratio Outcomes self Inputs self Outcomes other Inputs other =

Consequences Of Inequity PerceivedInequity Dissatisfaction Under-reward Motivation to Change Tension Anger Over-reward Tension Guilt

How People React to Perceived Inequity (feeling under-paid) n Reduce inputs n Increase outcomes n Rationalize inputs or outcomes n Change the referent person n Leave (e.g., change jobs)

EXPECTANCY THEORY n Analyzes the parts of the Motivation Process that the Leader must attend to (cf., Path-Goal Theory of Leadership) n Has the greatest Breadth of popular motivation theories

EXPECTANCY THEORY E P (Expectancy) What is the probability that I can perform at the required level if I try? P O (Intrumentality) What is the probability that my good performance will lead to desired outcomes? Valence What value do I place on the potential outcome? EffortPerformance Outcomes

MULTIPLICATIVE RELATIONSHIP If any of the three (Expectancy, Instrumentality, or Valence) equal Zero, then there is No Motivation.

Ranking Rewards How do you think 1000 non-managers ranked the following? (1 = highest) _2_ Work done being appreciated _4_ Job security _7_ Good working conditions _3_ Feeling of being in on things _5_ Good wages _9_ Tactful discipline _8_ Organization being loyal to employees _1_ Interesting work 10_ Sympathetic help with personal problems _6_ Promotion and growth opportunities

Applying Expectancy Theory n Increase Expectancy: u Enhance employees’ skills u Build up employees’ confidence n Increase Instrumentality u Clearly link rewards to performance n Increase Valences u Find out what employees want from their jobs

How do we learn? n Classical Conditioning u Learn by experiencing two stimuli occurring close in time n Operant Conditioning u Learn from consequences of behaviors n Social Learning u Learn by observing others

Classical Conditioning n Involuntary reflexes u Behavior is “elicited” n Neutral Stimulus becomes “conditioned” through association with an “unconditioned” one n Thus, the formerly neutral stimulus now elicits the response previously elicited only by the “unconditioned” stimulus

Operant Conditioning n Voluntary Behavior u Behavior is “emitted” n Associations learned among Stimulus, Response, and Consequence n The focus is on learning to obtain positive outcomes and avoid negative ones n Behavior is “Shaped” through small, reinforced steps

Social Learning n Also called “Modeling” and “Vicarious Learning” n Observe someone else (the Model) n Consequences to Model are important n Can be considered a sub-category of Operant Conditioning

MAJOR ELEMENTS OF REINFORCEMENT THEORY n Stimulus u Supervisor requests faster work n Response u Employee increases or decreases speed or does nothing n Consequence u Positive Reinforcement, Negative Reinf. (Avoidance), Extinction, Punishment

BEHAVIORAL CONSEQUENCES To Motivate Employees to Continue Desired Behaviors To Motivate Employees to Cease Undesirable Behaviors Positive Reinforcement (Good outcome if you continue) Negative Reinforcement (Bad outcome if you don’t continue) Extinction (No outcome whether you continue or not) Punishment (Bad outcome if you don’t stop)

SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT Fixed Interval Variable Interval Variable Ratio Fixed Ratio Fixed Variable Passage of Time Number of Times Behavior Occurs Basis for Determining Frequency of Reinforcement Spacing or Timing of Reinforcements

SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT: EXTINCTION The less predictable Reinforcement was in the past, the more difficult behavior is to extinguish (Resistance to Extinction) --Intermittent (Partial) Schedules are more resistant than Continuous (100%) --Variable Schedules are more resistant than Fixed