Theories of Development

Theories COGNITIVE Theory – Piaget LEARNING Theory – Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-Bandura ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby

COGNITIVE THEORY - Piaget Mental Processes and how they develop

Cognitive skills (mental processes) Memory Language Development Reading Writing Perception Thinking Reasoning Mathematical skills counting Problem solving How we understand the world

Piaget Jean Piaget ( ) was one of the 20th centuries most influential researchers in the area of developmental psychology. He recognized there was a difference between infant, child and adult understanding of the world. Infants have simple concepts of the world and develop more complex concepts as they get older

Assimilation & Accommodation Infants have simple ‘SCHEMAS’ – a package of information stored in memory e.g. sucking & grasping, basic reflexes. More complex schemas are developed through; ACCOMODATION - fitting new knowledge into existing schemas ASSIMILATION- changing schemas when new information is received

4 Stages of Cognitive development Piaget came up with 4 stages of development, these stages are universal: SENSORIMOTOR0-2yrs PREOPERATIONAL2-7yrs CONCRETE OPERATIONS7-11yrs FORMAL OPERATIONS11+

1.SENSORIMOTOR (0-2) Mainly reflex responses Little evidence of thinking processes Child deals with the world through sensations e.g. crying, noise, comfort 0-8m 8m+ Object permanence develops

2. PREOPERATIONAL STAGE 2-7YRS Split into two ages 2-4yrs(preconceptual) & 4-7yrs (intuitive) 2-4 YRS – Preconceptual thinking Start to use objects to represent another. Attribute motives to objects Unable to see a situation from another’s point of view – Children assume others see/feel the same as the child does. This is known as EGOCENTRISM

2-4yrs children pick what they see, not what the doll sees. ‘Egocentrism’ YouTube - Egocentrism 7 yrs consistently pick what the doll Sees. Child is able to ‘Decentre’

2. Preoperational stage 4-7yrs Intuitive Child tends to judge situations on appearance alone, without logical reasoning. Stage 2Stage 2 MAN WOMAN

Conservation Tests 16% of U7’s in Piaget’s test correctly identified that the rows had equal numbers of marbles

3. Concrete Operations 7-11ys Child can deal with logic but only if it is real (Concrete) not abstract e.g simple arithmetic. There are number of tests aimed to see whether children apply logic or judge on appearance, these are called ‘Conservation’ tests.

Further conservation tests Which beaker contains the most water? Piaget found that U7’s cannot conserve because they do not yet use logical thought. YouTube - Piaget - Stage 3 -

4. Formal Operations 11+ Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language

4. Formal Operations 11+ Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking – using concepts that cannot be demonstrated. EG: Concrete thought: Abstract thought: This is a puppy, it is a mammal. Mammals give birth to live babies and have backbones…… Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concrete/practical issues at first hand Piaget - Stage 4 - Formal - Deductive Reasoning - YouTube This is a puppy

Evaluation of Piaget’s Theory p.66 penguin STAGES Development may be more gradual Each stage may not be as distinct as Piaget proposed, some succeed in one test but not another Too much emphasis on the role of individual discovery – ignores the role of others

Evaluation of Piaget’s Theory p.66 penguin PIAGET’S TESTS Improvements in the tests showed children develop the tested abilities earlier than Piaget suggested – so Perhaps the timings are incorrect, not the theory itself. Children may not have understood the tests Piaget’s work made a significant contribution to our understanding and has had many practical applications in education and parenting. Piaget’s research was pioneering. he used very detailed observation techniques and reporting methods

APPLICATION Parents, teachers & carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas Learning is not just about having information pumped into you We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world

Applications of Piaget – Learning through play Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding. Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding.

Learning Theory - Skinner Frederick Skinner (1904 – 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist. He was the founder of a psychological theory called ‘BEHAVIOURISM’ (also known as ‘LEARNING THEORY’ All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow. We are shaped by our environment – products of what happens to us

Learning Theory If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat it… If our behaviour is ‘REINFORCED’ it makes it more likely that we will repeat that behaviour.

Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons. He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them. He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the ‘Skinner Box’. An example of a Skinner Box - YouTube

Operant Conditioning Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING What happens when a child accidentally drops her spoon?

Reinforcement Positive reinforcement = rewarding, we are likely to repeat this behaviour. Negative reinforcement = unpleasant, we learn to avoid this.

Punishment Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour, whilst reinforcement strengthens it

Application of Learning Theory Child rearing Gender roles Language development

Child rearing Close contact between child & career is rewarding, food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact, the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced. the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops crying/smiles/coo’s). EG: a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable – the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved, this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult. ==

Applications to Gender Roles

Applications Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls & Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid differentiating treatment, yet gender differences still remain – this suggests biological factors must be considered.

Applications – Language development Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling) After a while parents give less attention to babbling This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds Again, the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time. The child modifies the sounds until ‘SHAPING’ process results in recognisable sounds. Imitation is also rewarded.

Bandura The Bobo Doll Study

The Question The nature - nurture debate Do children learn behaviour from the behaviour they see around them?

Specifically……. Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation? This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

Before we begin……. 1List two behaviours you think might be learned by watching others 2List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The BOBO doll study The participants 72 children (Stanford University nursery school) 36 boys & 36 girls age range 3yrs – 5 ½ yrs

The BOBO doll study Method - an experiment There were three conditions 24 children in each condition Bandura - bobo doll experiment - YouTubeBandura - bobo doll experiment - YouTube