Research Methods: Level 6 Final Year Project Toolkit

The research process Selecting research area Formulating research questions / hypotheses Selecting a research strategy Collecting data Analysing the data Report writing

What is a research method? It’s a technique for collecting data Two main ‘families’ qualitative and quantitative Research methods Quantitative methods (primary) Qualitative methods (primary) SurveysInterviewing Structured observationEthnography and observation More methods but looking here at ‘primary’ research methods

A research strategy based on quantification in the collection and analysing of data. Can be used to generate theories but generally involved in testing theories and hypotheses. What is a quantitative research approach?

Deductive – aims to deduce meaning for particular individuals / cases based on broader principles. Can be reductionist –it may break a particular theory or problem into its many component parts and test each element separately. Objective – the phenomenon under investigation must be observable and verifiable. What is a quantitative research approach?

A research strategy based on the collection of non-numerical data. Is often used to generate theories rather than testing theories and hypotheses. What is a qualitative research approach?

Inductive – aims to generate theory from research. Can be interpretivist – understanding the social world through looking at the interpretation of that world by its participants. Constructionist – associated with the idea that life is socially constructed (how people create their own social reality through meanings). What is a qualitative research approach?

Deductive & inductive Deductive =Theory Observations / findings Inductive = Observations / findings Theory

Process of research Theory Hypothesis Data collection Data findings Confirmation / rejection of hypothesis Revision of theory General research questions Collection of data Interpretation of data Conceptual & theoretical framework Conclusions Deductive Inductive

Quantitative Data presented numerically, descriptive, explorative, causation, theory testing. Nomothetic explanations – broad, partial, based on large number of cases. Qualitative Collection of text/words/images– idiographic explanations – complete an explanation as possible (rich data), focus on fewer cases. Summary of Quants and Quals

Generalise from sample to population Replicable in other times/ places Large numbers of respondents Minimum interviewer training Respondent completion (postal surveys etc.) Ease of analysis Standardised questions General advantages to quant methods

Limited access to respondent meaning Poor internal validity Snapshot Researcher decides categories Limited value of small scale research General disadvantages to quant methods

Unlimited access to respondent meaning Good internal validity Process Respondent decides categories Excellent for small scale research. General advantages to qual methods

Limited generalisation Limited replicability Small numbers of respondents Specialist interviewer skills No respondent completion Complex analysis No standardisation General disadvantages to qual methods

Choice of research method is dependent on: what is the aim of the research & what are the research questions? what research design is most appropriate? what methods would be best suited to answering the research questions? Choosing methods?

Primary research: survey structured interviewing (face-to-face, telephone) self-completion (postal, internet) Primary research: structured observation Quant primary research methods

Surveys (structured interview or a self-completion) follow the same principles: o questions are usually specific and closed ended o all respondents asked the same questions using a fixed schedule/questionnaire – standardised questions Advantages and disadvantages to different survey methods – see slide set 9a. Quants primary research: surveys

Questions to ask before embarking on survey research 1.What it is you want to know? Will a survey provide the answers? 2. Who are you surveying and can they give you the answers? 3. Where is your ‘population’? Can they answer your questions? Will they answer your questions? 4.When are you going to conduct your survey? Quants primary research: surveys

Remember the disadvantages to survey research: Limited access to respondent meaning Often poor internal validity Social desirability effect potential Limited value of small scale research Quants primary research: surveys

Survey research problematic in investigating behaviour Observe behaviour instead? Structured observation: systematic observation of behaviour and recoding it in line set categories devised before starting data collection Quants primary research: structured observation

Researcher uses rules for the observation: what the researcher should look for? how behaviour should be recorded? what the time period for observation should be? Observation/ coding schedule constructed – similar to a structured interview schedule Generated data resembles survey data behaviours treated as variables often underpinned by cross-sectional research design Quants primary research: structured observation

Remember the disadvantages to structured observation: Reliability inter-observer consistency intra-observer consistency Validity variability in observers over time? people changing their behaviour because they know they are being observed? Quants primary research: structured observation

Primary research: interviewing one-to-one group (groups and focus groups) Primary research: ethnography and observation Quant primary research methods

Interviews are usually grouped as follows: Structured - survey (quants methods) Semi – structured (quals method) Unstructured (quals method) Interviews (quals) usually follow the same principles: semi-structured closed and open ended questions unstructured no set questions, often theme-based in both cases the interview process is flexible Quals primary research: interviews

Develop an interview guide: General research area Specific research questions Interview topics Formulate interview questions Review/revise questions Pilot guide Indentify novel issues Revise interview questions Finalise guide Semi-structured interviews

Types of questions: Introducing Follow-up Probing Specifying Direct Indirect Structuring questions Silence Interpreting questions Semi-structured interviews

Interview usually undertaken with individuals but…there are a number of group techniques: Expert opinion panels (Delphi Groups) Focus groups Using technology: chat rooms, forums and wikis. Interviewing: working with groups

Organised discussion with a selected group of individuals to gain information about their views and experiences of a topic. Formats: group interviewing (interviewing a number of people at the same time) emphasis on questions and responses between the researcher and participants. focus groups emphasis on interaction within the group based on topics that are supplied by the researcher Interviewing: focus groups

Questions to ask: How many groups? What size should those groups be? Level of moderator involvement? Selecting participants – who can participate? Structured or unstructured? Interviewing: focus groups Answer?It depends on what you are researching!!

Focus groups: to think about... Advantages: Degree of control to the participants Rich data Dynamic and insightful Disadvantages: Anonymity/Confidentiality Depth validity – failure to give full accounts Dominant participant's Group composition, group dynamic and different responses. Facilitators skills and expertise Resources: Time, planning and conducting

Ethnography: “Is the study of people in naturally occurring settings or ‘fields’ by methods of data collection which capture their social meanings and ordinary activities, involving the researcher participating directly in the setting if not also the activities, in order to collect data in a systematic manner but without meaning imposed”. Brewer, J. (2000) Ethnography. Buckingham: Open University Press. Quals primary research: ethnography & observation

Key issue is gaining access to the social situation you want to research & maintaining relationships with the people you want to study Overt and covert observation Closed settings (firms, schools) & open/public settings (communities) Rules are not exact! Ethnography & observation

Roles for the ethnographer: complete participant: member of social group & identity not known to members participant-as-observer: member of social group & identity known to members observer-as-participant: researcher is mainly an interviewer with few opportunities to participate complete observer: no interaction with social group Participation can be active or passive depending on the situation Ethnography: roles

Can’t remember everything so have to take field notes detailed summaries of events and behaviours and researcher’s initial reflections Types of field notes: mental notes: when its inappropriate to be seen note taking jotted notes: brief notes when detailed note taking in front of people is inappropriate full field notes: as soon as possible make full field notes –this is the main source of data for the research Ethnography: notes

Rare for research to use just one method Choice of research method is dependent on what methods are best suited to answering the research questions? Sometimes this involves ‘mixing methods’ using more than one method using more than one method of differing type – a quant and a qual Mixed methods...the next slide set Using methods - distinct?

Bryman, A. (2008) Social Research Methods. 3 rd Ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. David, M. and Sutton, C. (2011) Social Research : An Introduction. 2nd ed. London: Sage. Brewer, J. (2000) Ethnography. Buckingham: Open University Press. References

This resource was created by the University of Plymouth, Learning from WOeRk project. This project is funded by HEFCE as part of the HEA/JISC OER release programme.Learning from WOeRk This resource is licensed under the terms of the Attribution-Non-Commercial-Share Alike 2.0 UK: England & Wales license ( The resource, where specified below, contains other 3 rd party materials under their own licenses. The licenses and attributions are outlined below: 1.The name of the University of Plymouth and its logos are unregistered trade marks of the University. The University reserves all rights to these items beyond their inclusion in these CC resources. 2.The JISC logo, the and the logo of the Higher Education Academy are licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution -non-commercial-No Derivative Works 2.0 UK England & Wales license. All reproductions must comply with the terms of that license. Author Laura Lake InstituteUniversity of Plymouth Title Final Year Research Project Toolkit Description Primary Research Methods Date Created July 2011 Educational Level Undergraduate (Level 6) Keywords Surveys; structured observation; structured, semi, and unstructured interviews; ethnography; observation; mixed methods, UKOER, LFWOER, CPD, Learning from WOeRK, UOPCPDRM, Continuous professional development, Quantitative, Qualitative, HEA, JISC, HEFCE Back page originally developed by the OER phase 1 C-Change project ©University of Plymouth, 2010, some rights reserved