Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Chapter Five: The Public Relations Process This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law: any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over network; preparation of any derivative work including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images; any rental, lease, or lending of the program.

Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Overview Research Research Planning Planning Communication Communication Evaluation Evaluation

Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Research: The First Step What is research?  A form of listening  Controlled, objective, systematic information gathering Questions to ask before research design  What’s the problem?  Kind of information needed?  How will results be used?  Audience?  Who should do it?  How will data be analyzed/reported?  Timetable?  Budget?

Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Ways to Use Research Achieve credibility Achieve credibility Identify/segment publics Identify/segment publics Develop strategy Develop strategy Test messages Test messages Inform management Inform management Prevent crises Prevent crises Monitor competition Monitor competition Influence opinion Influence opinion Generate publicity Generate publicity Measure success Measure success

Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Types of Research  Secondary research  Existing information  Primary research  New/original information  Qualitative  Exploratory, rich data, often not generalizable  Focus groups, in-depth interviews, observation  Quantitative  Descriptive/explanatory, often generalizable  Surveys, polls

Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Research Techniques Archival Archival Databases Databases Internet Internet Content analysis Content analysis Interviews Interviews Focus groups Focus groups Copy testing Copy testing

Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Sampling Issues  Random sample  Everyone in the target audience has an equal chance of being selected.  Nonprobability sample is not random.  Most precise random sample is selected from list naming everyone in the target audience.  Sample size  Usually a sample of 250 to 500 people will provide data with a 5 to 6 percent margin of error  100 people will provide about a 10 percent margin

Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reaching Respondents Standard Mail Standard Mail Telephone Telephone In-person In-person Omnibus survey Omnibus survey Web and/or Web and/or

Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Planning: The Second Step Planning must be strategic Planning must be strategic Approaches to planning Approaches to planning MBO MBO Planning model: Facts, Goals, Audience, Key Message Planning model: Facts, Goals, Audience, Key Message

Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Eight elements of a plan Situation Situation Objectives Objectives Audience Audience Strategy Strategy Tactics Tactics Calendar/Timetable Calendar/Timetable Budget Budget Evaluation Evaluation

Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Communication: The Third Step Tactics are developed to implement the plan Tactics are developed to implement the plan Five possible objectives for communicators Five possible objectives for communicators Message exposure Message exposure Accurate dissemination Accurate dissemination Acceptance by audience Acceptance by audience Attitude change Attitude change Behavior change Behavior change

Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Receiving the Message Schramm’s model Schramm’s model Source, Encoder, Signal, Decoder, Destination Source, Encoder, Signal, Decoder, Destination Grunig’s model Grunig’s model Two-way symmetrical communication Two-way symmetrical communication Mixed motives Mixed motives

Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Theoretical Perspectives Lasswell’s definition of communication Lasswell’s definition of communication Media uses and gratification Media uses and gratification Passive audiences Passive audiences Active audiences Active audiences

Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Importance of Language Understand cultural differences Understand cultural differences Check writing for simplicity and clarity Check writing for simplicity and clarity Readability formulas: Flesch, cloze Readability formulas: Flesch, cloze Use symbols, acronyms, easy-to- remember slogans Use symbols, acronyms, easy-to- remember slogans Avoid jargon, hype, euphemisms, discriminatory language Avoid jargon, hype, euphemisms, discriminatory language

Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Issues related to believability Credibility Credibility Hovland’s Sleeper effect Hovland’s Sleeper effect Context Context Audience predispositions Audience predispositions Festinger’s cognitive dissonance Festinger’s cognitive dissonance Involvement Involvement

Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Getting the Audience to Act Repetition Repetition Five-stage Adoption Process Five-stage Adoption Process Awareness, Interest, Evaluation, Trial, Adoption Awareness, Interest, Evaluation, Trial, Adoption Rogers’ Diffusion of Innovations Rogers’ Diffusion of Innovations Relative advantage, Compatibility, Complexity, Trialability, Observability Relative advantage, Compatibility, Complexity, Trialability, Observability

Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Evaluation: The Fourth Step Objectives are a prerequisite for evaluation Objectives are a prerequisite for evaluation Basic evaluation questions: Basic evaluation questions: Adequately planned? Adequately planned? Message(s) understood? Message(s) understood? How could strategy have been more effective? How could strategy have been more effective? Audiences reached? Audiences reached? Objectives achieved? Objectives achieved? What was unforeseen? What was unforeseen? Budget met? Budget met? Future improvements? Future improvements?

Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Measurement Of Production Of Production Of Message Exposure Of Message Exposure Of Awareness Of Awareness Of Attitudes Of Attitudes Of Action Of Action

Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Production Production Count how many releases, photos, pitch letters made within a time frame Count how many releases, photos, pitch letters made within a time frame Message Exposure Message Exposure Compile clippings/mentions Compile clippings/mentions Most widely used metric Most widely used metric Media impressions Media impressions Placement x circulation/viewership/listenership Placement x circulation/viewership/listenership Internet hits Internet hits

Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Message Exposure, cont’d Message Exposure, cont’d Advertising equivalency Advertising equivalency Space/Time x advertising rate Space/Time x advertising rate Systematic tracking Systematic tracking Analyze volume and content of media placements Analyze volume and content of media placements Requests and 800 number calls Requests and 800 number calls Cost per person Cost per person Audience attendance Audience attendance

Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Audience Awareness Audience Awareness Survey Survey Audience Attitudes Audience Attitudes Related to awareness Related to awareness Baseline/Benchmark studies Baseline/Benchmark studies Audience Action Audience Action Measure desired behaviors Measure desired behaviors