Principles of linguistic research (1) Synchronic (from Greek syn ‘together’+ chronos ‘time’) – studies the languages as a system at present. Diachronic (from Greek dia ‘through’+ chronos ‘time’) – considers the language in process of its historical change. 1

Principles of linguistic research (2) Interlinguistics (from Greek inter ‘between’) – deals with investigation of human language in general. It demands comparing with other languages. Intralinguistics (from Greek intrа ‘intra’) – deals with investigation of only one language in its without comparing with other languages. 2

Principles of linguistic research (3) Microlinguistics – study the sentence as a main object of linguistics. By means of sentence analyzing of all elements of system, its units and rules of valency are taken into consideration. Macrolinguistics – interaction of all factors of speech and communication. 3

Principles of linguistic research (4) Semasiologie (Greek semasia ‘marking’) – that is the way of cognition from form to meaning. Onomasiologie (Greek onoma ‘name’) – that is the way of cognition from meaning to form. 4

Principles of linguistic research (5) Experimental – investigation of language by means of special facilities (tests, questionnaires, devices). Logical – observation of speech phenomenon and their analyze after logical laws (analyze, synthesis, compare). 5

Methods and ways of intralinguistics in diachronic and synchronic The first scientific method of linguistic research was so called contrastive- historical method. Its founders were F. Bopp, R. Rask, J. Grimm (XIX c.). Contrastive-historical method divides into two types: method of inter and intra reconstruction. 6

Methods and ways of intralinguistics in synchronic Nomographic method (gr. nomos ‘law’ + grapho ‘write’) – researches general, universal attributes of world languages. Idiographic method (gr. idios ‘especially, specific’) – deals with the study of individual features of one languages in synchronic. 7

Idiographic methods in synchronic It deals with study paradigmatic and systematic attitude in language system. The sentences are taken from written and orally speech. It may be taken part informants. 8

Immediate constituents analysis The theory of Immediate constituents was originally elaborated as an attempt to determine the ways in which lexical units are relevantly related to one another. It was discovered that combinations of units are usually structured into hierarchial sets of binary constructions. 9

e. g. In the word-group “a black dress in severe style“ we do not relate the indefinite article “a” to adjective “black”, “black” to “dress”, “dress” to “in”, “in” to “severe”, “severe” to “style”. We set up a structure which may be represented as “a black dress” & “in severe style”. 10

Thus, the fundamental aim of immediate constituents analysis is to segment a set of lexical units into two maximally independent sequences & these maximally independent sequences are called immediate constituents. 11

The further segmentation of immediate constituents results in ultimate constituents, which means that further segmentation is impossible for no meaning can be found. 12

e. g. The ultimate constituents of the phrase given are “a”,”black”, “dress”, “ in”, “severe”, “style”. This method of analysis is extremely fruitful in discovering the derivational structure of words. 13

In Russian Исподнизу била струя холодной воды л а н ой 14

At least we have by means of this method 14 morphems. And we сan classify such as: free and constrained morphems. Free m. can be used independently in speech: под, низ, холод, вод (4). Constrained m. are used in speech only in the connection with other morphems: ис, у, би, а, стру, я, etc. (10). 15

lexical and grammatical morphems: lexical (root, affixes): ис, под, низ, би, стру, холод, и, вод (8). Grammatical: у, л, а, я, ой, ы (6). 16

Allomorphs. That is same semantic morphems but differs in expression. E.g. in Russian би-ть /бо-й/ /бе-й/ /бье-т/. In Kazakh лар/лер, дар/дер, тар/тер. This is lexical allomorphs. 17

Allophones. In the linguistic literature phoneme is defined as the smallest distinctive unit. Unlike the other bigger units of language as morpheme and word it doesn’t have its meaning but helps us to distinct the meanings of words and morphemes. 18

Comp. Eng. boy-toy, better-letter-latter-litter- later; Ger. gehen-sehen, lehren-kehren; Russ. стол-стул, ходит-ходим, etc. "phoneme" is used to mean "sound" in its contrastive sense, and “allophone” is used for sounds which are variants of a phoneme: they usually occur in different positions in the word (i.e. in different environments) and hence cannot contrast with each other, nor be used to make meaningful distinctions. 19

Some defects of this method 1)No attention to the semantic of the words and sentences. 2)No attention to the role of connective words (articles, prepositions, conjunctions), word-order and prosodic. E.g. pocket watch, watch pocket. 3)No attention to the sentences with the same semantic but with different syntactic structure. 20