Conflicts & Peacemaking Internal Conflicts – Approach & avoidance approach=-approach – Boat or plane to vacation? avoidance-avoidance – Homework or bed without supper approach=-avoidance – Timid man and proposing (fear of rejection/joy of acceptance) double approach-avoidance – Country vs. city living External Conflicts – Social traps Reading: A Line on Life

Conflicts & Peacemaking Conflict resolution – Superordinate goals (Sherif) – GRIT (Seligman and Duckworth)

Altruism and Pro-Social Behavior: Why We Help

Burnstein, Crandall, & Kitayama (1994) Write your answer to the following questions in your notebook. 1. There are three people who need you to run a small errand to the store: – A cousin – A sister – An acquaintance You have time to help only one… – Whose errand do you run?

2. There are three people asleep in different rooms of a burning house: – Your 7 year-old female cousin – Your 75 year-old grandfather – A 21 year-old acquaintance You have time to rescue only one… – Who do you save? Burnstein, Crandall, & Kitayama (1994)

Theories of Prosocial Behavior: Possible explanations for why we help Evolutionary Social exchange Social reciprocity norm Empathy-altruism Predict how each of these theories explains why people help.

Evolutionary theory: A Darwinian dilemma Altruistic behavior may decrease chances for reproduction/passing on of genes How can prosocial behavior be explained evolutionarily without contradicting Darwin’s theory?

There are three people who need you to run a small errand to the store: – A cousin – A sister – An acquaintance You have time to help only one… – Whose errand do you run? Basic Motives Underlying Prosocial Behavior: Basic Motives Underlying Prosocial Behavior: Evolutionary Psychology: Instincts and Genes

) High (parents, siblings, children) Burnstein, Crandall, & Kitayama (1994) Tendency to Help Degree of Relatedness Mod. (grand- parents) Low (first cousins) None (acquaintances) None (acquaintances) For everyday help, people tended to help close relatives more than non-relatives

Burnstein, Crandall, & Kitayama (1994) – Participants in this study were asked to imagine scenarios like the following: There are three people asleep in different rooms of a burning house: – Your 7 year-old female cousin – Your 75 year-old grandfather – A 21 year-old acquaintance You have time to rescue only one… – Who do you save? Basic Motives Underlying Prosocial Behavior: Basic Motives Underlying Prosocial Behavior: Evolutionary Psychology: Instincts and Genes

High (parents, siblings, children) High (parents, siblings, children) Burnstein, Crandall, & Kitayama (1994) Tendency to Help Degree of Relatedness Mod. (grand- parents) Mod. (grand- parents) Low (first cousins) Low (first cousins) The difference became even more pronounced in life-or-death situations None (acquaintances) None (acquaintances)

How can prosocial behavior be explained evolutionarily without contradicting Darwin’s theory? 1.Kin selection - tendency to help genetic relatives Helping a close relative promotes the survival of those genes Basic Motives Underlying Prosocial Behavior: Basic Motives Underlying Prosocial Behavior: Evolutionary Psychology: Instincts and Genes

Burnstein, Crandall, & Kitayama (1994): Findings Kin are helped more than non-kin, especially in life-or-death situations Females are helped more than males, except elderly females (post- menopausal) Young are helped more than old Healthy relatives helped more than non-healthy in life-or-death situations In life-or-death helping, relatedness matters (this assures that our genes will continue) In everyday helping, we may be guided more by social norms and moral rules (e.g., "help the sick") Why do these findings make sense from an evolutionary point of view?

Social Reciprocity Norm Example???

Social Exchange Theory In what ways do we benefit from helping others? – Increases chances of others helping us – Relieves distress of bystander – Social approval – Self-worth In what ways can helping others cost us? – danger – pain – embarrassment – time –$–$ Cost vs. benefits; NO PURE ALTRUISM

Empathy-Altruism Theory What is empathy?

Empathy and Altruism: The Pure Motive for Helping When did people agree to help Carol (who was in auto accident) w/work missed in Intro Psych? (Toi & Batson,1982) High empathy: Imagine how Carol felt Low Empathy: Be objective, don’t be concerned w/ how Carol felt

Situational factors Situational factors can influence prosocial behavior: – Presence of others/Bystander effect – Environmental conditions Helping more likely to occur in “positive” conditions – Sunny weather – Daylight – Small town vs. big city (Urban Overload Theory - Milgram) – Time pressures More likely to help when there are not time pressures (Darley and Batson (1973)

Darley & Batson’s (1973) Results

PERSONAL QUALITIES AND PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR: WHY DO SOME PEOPLE HELP MORE THAN OTHERS? Gender Men = – more likely to perform chivalrous and heroic acts – more likely to help strangers in emergency situations Women = – more likely to be helpful in long-term relationships that involve greater commitment (neighbor or elderly relative)

Gender differences in receiving help Are people more likely to help women or men? It depends. – Male helpers are more likely to help women than men. – Female helpers are equally likely to help men and women. Women not only receive more help from men, but they also SEEK more help.

Mood Feel Good, Do Good: When people are in a good mood, they are more helpful (Isen and Levin, 1972) Why? – When we’re in a good mood, we tend to see the good side of other people, giving them the benefit of the doubt. – Helping others can prolong our good mood. – Good moods increase the amount of attention we pay to ourselves, and this factor in turn makes us more likely to behave according to our values and ideals.

Mood Feel Bad, Do Good: People help to alleviate their own sadness and distress (the negative state relief hypothesis). Guilt – People act on the idea that good deeds cancel out bad deeds. Sadness – To the extent that helping is rewarding, it can make us feel better.

How can a sad mood and a happy mood both lead to more helping? Different reasons Sadness: Helping may improve temporary sadness. (But, if we blame others for our bad mood, sadness is not associated with more helping.) Complex association. Happiness: May trigger positive thoughts about others. May prolong good mood. Straightforward, consistent association.

PERSONAL QUALITIES AND PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR: WHY DO SOME PEOPLE HELP MORE THAN OTHERS? Culture People in all cultures are more likely to help anyone they define as a member of their ingroup than those they perceive in out- groups. A particular cultural value, prominent in Latin American and Spanish countries, that strongly relates to prosocial behavior is simpatía (friendly, polite, helpful toward others).

Relationship: helper and helpee Several characteristics influence who helpers choose to help: – Liking – Similarity – Perception of helpee’s need Relates to attribution theory – More likely to help people who’s problem is out of their control (it’s the situation, not the person’s disposition)

PERSONAL QUALITIES AND PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR: WHY DO SOME PEOPLE HELP MORE THAN OTHERS? Is there an “altruistic personality”? Individuals who score high on personality tests of altruism are not much more likely to help than those with lower scores. Research has found that the extent to which people are helpful in one situation is NOT highly related to how prosocial they are in another situation.