Motivation Chapter Twelve

I. Theories of Motivation

A. Definition 1.Refers to an inner state that guides and drives human behavior 2.Prepare us for action but also influence our behavioral, cognitive, and physiological responses to events and people in the environment 3.Can not see motivation directly so we assume it from the behavior we observe 4. Can come from outside or inside of us

B. Instinct Theory 1. Theory focused on instincts: inborn patterns of behavior that are not learned 2. Argues that organisms are preprogrammed to engage in behaviors that ensure survival and reproduction Occur in almost the same way among all members of a species (Ex. migration, nest building, hibernation, etc.) They do not explain human behavior 3. William McDougal suggested that 18 primary instincts drive behavior (1908)

C. What Motivates Us to Action 1. That “something” starts with a need and then leads to a drive a. Need– results from a lack of something desirable or useful Can be physiological or psychologicalphysiological or psychological Examples- oxygen and food (physiological); self- esteem (psychological) b. Drive– feeling of tension caused by an unmet need Motivates us to do something to meet the need Primary drives- basic biological needs (hunger, thirst, sleep) Examples- hunger drives us to eat; curiosity drives us to find out something

D. Drive-Reduction Theory 1. It replaced the instinct theory 2. Emerged from the work of Clark Hull 3. His Theory: a. When an organism is deprived of something it needs or wants, it becomes tense and agitated b. To relieve this tension, it engages in more or less random activity c. Biological needs drive an organism to act, and the organism strives us to maintain homeostasis (a balanced state) d. Conclusion- Physical needs drive an organism to act randomly or according to habit until it satisfies its needs 3. He also believed that all human motives are extensions of basic biological needs

E. Incentive Theory 1.Proposes that individuals are motivated by a desire to obtain external incentives such as money, affection, and grades – Are also referred to as secondary drives (drives that are learned or acquired through experience) 2.Internal rewards can also motivate behavior 3.Even the expectation of a reward can be motivating

F. Arousal Theory 1.Argues that individuals are often motivated by a desire to either maintain or increase their level of stimulation or excitement 2.Seek homeostasis of levels of arousal 3.When arousal is too high, we seek to lower it 4.When arousal is too low, we seek to raise it 5.Related to Yerkes-Dodson Law– we perform at our best when we are functioning at a moderate level of arousal

G. Cognitive Theory 1.Proposes that individuals are motivated as a result of their own thoughts, desires, goals and expectations 2. Differentiates between two types: a.Extrinsic– drives individuals to engage in behaviors for external, tangible rewards such as money or to avoid punishment b. Intrinsic– leads individuals to engage in behaviors for their own enjoyment or needs

H. Psychological Theory 1.Focuses on social and psychological needs as powerful motivators underlying behavior 2.Also focused on the need for achievement – Argues that individuals are motivated by a desire to accomplish tasks and to excel 3.The need for achievement differs among individuals

I. Humanistic Theory 1.Proposed by Abraham Maslow 2.He saw human behavior as motivated primarily by a drive toward growth and fulfillment of needs 3.He developed a hierarchy of needs– outlined the various needs that drive human behavior and suggested that human behavior is driven by where one is in the hierarchy 4.Low-order needs must be satisfied before working to satisfy higher-order needs

J. Hierarchy of Needs 1.Physiological needs– include primary drives such as the need for water, food, and sleep 2.Safety needs– include the need for a safe, secure environment 3&4. Belongingness and love needs & Esteem needs– include the need to belong, to contribute to society and to feel valued by others 5. Self-actualization– one is able to recognize their fullest potential (only a few people actually attain full self-actualization

II. Biological and Social Motives

Why is it that some people seem more motivated than others when it comes to achieving something?

A.Definitions 1. Much of life is spent trying to satisfy biological and social needs 2. Biological needs are physiological requirements that we must fulfill to survive 3. Social needs are those that are learned through experience

B. Biological Motives 1. Critical to survival and physical well-being 2. Built-in regulating systems work like thermostats to maintain such internal processes as body temperature, the level of sugar in the blood, and the production of hormones 3. Homeostasis – the tendency of all organisms to correct imbalances (return to normal states)

1 C. Why Do We Eat? 1. Smell of certain foods 2. Eat out of habit 3. Eat for social reasons (psychosocial hunger factors)

D. Basics of Hunger 1. Lateral Hypothalamus (LH) – The part of the hypothalamus that tells you to eat 2. Ventromedial hypothalamus (VH) – The part of the hypothalamus that tells you to stop eating 3. Three kinds of information the hypothalamus interprets and uses to determine whether or not to motivate you to eat – The amount of glucose entering the cells – Your set-point (day-to-day weight) – Body temperature

D. Basics of Hunger 4. Several systems regulate hunger:  Brain – hypothalamus (lateral & ventromedial)  Stomach & digestive tract  Adipose tissue (fat)  Pancreas – blood glucose

D. Basics of Hunger 5. Stomach contractions occur closely before a hunger pang. Stomach contractions indicate hunger.

How can peer pressure impact your hunger?

E. Anorexia Nervosa 1. When body weight is kept below a minimal normal level by exercise, control of food intake, and other means. 2. Refusal to maintain body weight at or above a minimally normal weight for age and height (e.g., less than 85% of that expected). 3. Intense fear (phobic) of gaining weight or becoming fat, even though underweight. 4. Involves the denial of the seriousness of the current low body weight. 5. Types: – Restricting Type: the person has not regularly engaged in binge- eating or purging behavior – Binge-Eating/Purging Type: the person has regularly engaged in binge-eating or purging behavior

Anorexia Nervosa About 1% of people suffer from the disease.

F. Bulimia Nervosa 1. Control of body weight in spite of binge overeating 2. Recurrent episodes of binge eating: an amount of food that is definitely larger than most people would eat during a similar period of time and under similar circumstances AND a sense of lack of control over eating during the episode 3. Recurrent inappropriate behavior to prevent weight gain: self- induced vomiting; misuse of laxatives, diuretics, enemas, or other medications; fasting; or excessive exercise. 4. Binge eating and inappropriate behaviors, on average, at least twice a week for 3 months. 5. Types: – Purging Type: the person has regularly engaged in purging behaviors – Nonpurging Type: the person has used other inappropriate compensatory behaviors, such as fasting or excessive exercise

G. Obesity 1. Genes play a big role in a person’s weight 2. Obese – 30% or more above the ideal weight 3. Overweight – 20% over the ideal weight 4. Studies show that obese people eat because of external cues, not because they are hungry 5. Normal-weight people tend to respond more to internal signals (feeling of hunger) 6. Anxiety and depression are not causes of overeating

H. Social Motives 1.Learned from interactions with other people 2. Need for achievement – Ex.- David McClelland used TAT results to follow careers of people who scored high (83% had challenging careers) 3. Some are motivated by the fear of failure (Ex. may not try out for a sports team because he/she might not make it) 4. Fear of success also motivates people – Martina Horner found that the thought of succeeding in a traditionally male profession made many women anxious – Bright women had a strong fear of success than did average or slightly above average women

Sarah Palin