1-1 Chapter 1: Introduction

1-2 The Life-Span Perspective Development: Pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues through the human life span – The importance of studying life-span development Prepares us to take responsibility for children Gives us insight about our own lives

1-3 The Life-Span Perspective Characteristics of the life-span perspective – Life-span perspective: Views development as Lifelong: Birth - Death Multidimensional: Biological, cognitive, & socioemotional Multidirectional: Increase and decrease Plastic: Capacity for change Plastic Multidisciplinary: Psychologist, Medical, Sociologist... Contextual: Historical, economic, social….

1-4 Types of Contextual Influences Normative age-graded influences: Similar for individuals in a particular age group (Puberty) Normative history-graded influences: Common to people of a particular generation because of historical circumstances (Vietnam) Nonnormative life events: Unusual occurrences that have a major impact on an individual’s life (Death of parent)

1-5 The Life-Span Perspective Contemporary concerns in life-span development – Health and well-being – Parenting and education – Sociocultural contexts and diversity Culture: Behavior patterns, beliefs, and all other products of a group that are passed on from generation to generation

1-6 The Life-Span Perspective Cross- cultural studies: Comparison of one culture with one or more other cultures Ethnicity: Based on cultural heritage, nationality characteristics, race, religion, and language Socioeconomic status: Grouping of people with similar occupational, educational, and economic characteristics Gender: Characteristics of people as males or females – Social policy: National government’s course of action designed to promote the welfare of its citizens

1-7 Biological, Cognitive, and Socioemotional Processes Changes in an individual’s physical nature Biological processes Changes in an individual’s thought, intelligence, and language Cognitive processes Changes in an individual’s relationships with other people, emotions, and personality Socioemotional processes

1-8 Biological, Cognitive, and Socioemotional Processes Connecting biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes – Connection is obvious in: Developmental cognitive neuroscience - Explores links between development, cognitive processes, and the brain Developmental social neuroscience - Examines connections between socioemotional processes, development, and the brain

1-9 Processes Involved in Developmental Changes

1-10 Periods of Development Conceptions of age – Four types of age Chronological age Biological age - Person’s age in terms of biological health Psychological age - Individual’s adaptive capacities compared with those of other individuals of the same chronological age Social age - Connectedness with others and the social roles individuals adopt – Age and happiness Research revealed that happiness increased with age

1-11 Periods of Development Developmental issues – Nature-nurture issue: Concerns the extent to which development is influenced by nature and by nurture Nature - Organism’s biological inheritance Nurture - Environmental experiences

1-12 Developmental Issues – Stability-change issue: Involving the degree to which early traits and characteristics persist through life or change – Continuity-discontinuity issue: Focuses on the degree to which development involves either: Gradual, cumulative change or distinct stages – Evaluating the developmental issues Nature and nurture, stability and change, continuity and discontinuity characterize development throughout the human life span

1-13 Theories of Development Scientific method - A four-step process – Conceptualize a process or problem to be studied – Collect research information – Analyze data – Draw conclusions

1-14 Theories of Development Theory: An interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps to explain phenomena and facilitate predictions Hypotheses: Specific assumptions and predictions that can be tested to determine their accuracy

1-15 Theories of Development Psychoanalytic theories Cognitive theories Behavioral and social cognitive theories Ethological theory Ecological theory An eclectic theoretical orientation

1-16 Psychoanalytic Theories Describe development as primarily unconscious and heavily colored by emotion – Freud’s theory – Erikson’s psychosocial theory: Eight stages of development unfold as we go through life

1-17 Freudian Stages (Psychosexual)

1-18 Erikson’s Eight Life-Span Stages (Psychosocial)

1-19 Psychoanalytic Theories Evaluation – Emphasis on: A developmental framework Family relationships Unconscious aspects of the mind – Criticisms Lack of scientific support Too much emphasis on sexual underpinnings An image of people that is too negative

1-20 Cognitive Theories Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory – Piaget’s theory: States that children go through four stages of cognitive development as they actively construct their understanding of the world

1-21 Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development Video Video

1-22 Cognitive Theories Vygotsky’s sociocultural cognitive theory – Vygotsky’s theory: Emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development Information-processing theory: Emphasizes that individuals: – Manipulate information – Monitor it – Strategize about it

1-23 Cognitive Theories Evaluation – Contributions Positive view of development Emphasis on the active construction of understanding – Criticisms Skepticism about the pureness of Piaget’s stages Little attention to individual variations

Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories Operant conditioning - B.F. Skinner (also called instrumental conditioning) a learning process in which a particular action is followed either by something desired (which makes the person or animal more likely to repeat the action) or by something unwanted (which makes the action less likely to be repeated). Important terms: Positive, Negative, Reinforcement, and Punishment.

Negative Reinforcement Timmy doesn’t want to eat carrots but his parents keep trying to get him to eat them. At dinner time, if there are any carrots on his plate he will scream and shout until they are taken off his plate. His parents always give in to the tantrums and take away the carrots because his tantrums are becoming increasingly severe and last longer. Bx = Screaming 1-25

Positive Punishment Jason told his teacher that his class was a load of bull%^&*. The teacher gave Jason an extra assignment on the value of an education. Bx = Cursing 1-26

Negative Punishment Karen stayed out past her curfew. When she returned home, her parents took away her car privileges and grounded her for a week. Karen will be able to earn these privileges back through displaying pro-social behavior and following the rules. Bx = Breaking house rules 1-27

Positive Reinforcement Lawrence was told if he completed his homework he would be able to watch television for an hour. Lawrence now completes his homework as soon as he gets home. Bx = Doing Homework 1-28

1-29 Experiment

1-30 Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories Social Cognitive Theory - Albert Bandura An extension of behaviorism that emphasizes the influence that other people have over a person’s behavior. Observational Learning (also called Modeling)- people learn by observing other people and then copying them.

1-31 Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories Evaluation – Emphasis on: Scientific research Environmental determinants of behavior – Criticisms Little emphasis on cognition in Skinner’s view Inadequate attention paid to developmental changes

1-32 Ethological Theory Ethology: Study of the behavior of animals in their natural habitat – Theory stresses that behavior is: Strongly influenced by biology Tied to evolution Characterized by critical or sensitive periods – A critical period is a time when certain things must occur for normal development. – A sensitive period is when a particular development occurs most easily. Lorenz’s research with Greylag Geese (imprinting) – Konrad Lorenz helped bring ethology to prominence – John Bowlby - Attachment to a caregiver over the first year of life has important consequences throughout the life span

1-33 Ethological Theory Evaluation – Contributions include: Focus on the biological and evolutionary basis of development Use of careful observations in naturalistic settings

1-34 Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory of Development

1-35 Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory Evaluation – Contributions include: Systematic examination of macro and micro dimensions of environmental systems Attention to connections between environmental systems Emphasis on a range of social contexts beyond the family – Criticism Giving inadequate attention to biological factors Too little emphasis on cognitive factors

1-36 Eclectic Theoretical Orientation Does not follow any one theoretical approach – Selects from each theory whatever is considered the best in it

1-37 Methods for Collecting Data Observation – Laboratory: Controlled setting in which many of the complex factors of the real world are removed – Naturalistic observation: Studies that involve observing behavior in real-world settings Observer Effect (Hawthorne Effect): how people change their behavior when it is observed. Survey and interview – Information is collected from a large number of people by interview, questionnaire, or some other means. – Acquiring valid survey data is not easy. – Survey answers are influenced by the wording and the sequence of the questions. Do you support the government forcing you to pay higher taxes?

1-38 Methods for Collecting Data Standardized test: Uniform procedures for administration and scoring Case study: In-depth look at a single individual Physiological measures: Heart rate

1-39 Research Designs Descriptive research: Designed to observe and record behavior Correlational research: Describe the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics – Correlation coefficient: A number based on statistical analysis that is used to describe the degree of association between two variables – Ranges from to – p-value: statistical probability of the occurrence of a given finding by chance alone (Example: p <.05)

Research Designs Correlation and Causation A correlation exists between two variables if one variable is more (or less) likely to occur when the other does. A correlation is positive if both variables tend to increase together or decrease together. A correlation is negative if one variable tends to increase while the other decreases. A correlation is zero if no connection is evident. Correlation is not causation

1-41 Research Designs Experimental research – Experiment: One or more of the factors are manipulated while all other factors are held constant Independent and dependent variables Experimental and control groups

1-42 Figure Principles of Experimental Research

1-43 Time Span of Research Cross-sectional approach: Individuals of different ages are compared at one time Longitudinal approach: Same individuals are studied over a period of time, usually several years or more – Cohort effects: Due to a person’s time of birth, era, or generation rather than the person’s actual age Cross-sequential Research: Study several groups of people of different ages (a cross-sectional approach) and follow them over the years (a longitudinal approach).

1-44 Conducting Ethical Research American Psychological Association’s ethics guidelines that address: – Informed consent – Confidentiality – Debriefing – Deception