Age of Despair THE DARKER SIDE OF THE LATE 19 TH CENTURY

The Jewish Problem – Continued Anti- Semitism While the early 19 th century saw some political doors and opportunities open to Jews, by the end of the century increasing problems and roadblocks Jews became scapegoats for economic problems of the era, such as the closing of small shops due to department stores The term “anti-Semitism” is developed based on Social Darwinism which suggested Jews were of a unique race (?) Some politicians of the era will be elected on anti-Semitic platforms, including Karl Leuger of Vienna In France, the Dreyfus Affair reflected resentment of Jews in all levels of society In Russia, pogroms were systematic attacks against Jews as a tool of “Russification”, and many Jews emigrated

Rise of Zionism Disappointment following the by reversal of progress at the end of the 19 th century, many Jews felt the only solution to stop their persecution would be the development of a Jewish state Theodore Herzl, who was horrified at the backlash Jews experienced as a result of the Dreyfus Affair, advocated Zionism Herzl, and others, will form an worldwide organization that will hold their first Congress in Switzerland in 1897

Impedes in Women's Progress While many women began to gain access to more jobs and higher education, they found they were still excluded from professional societies within their respective fields Because they will dominate certain professions (nurse, teacher, etc) it will ensure those professions will be poorly paid Some women will organize to address social and political inequalities:  Josephine Butler and the Latish National Association argued successfully against the Contagious Disease Act  “Feminists” begin to organize and demand property and divorce rights  While feminist organizations cooperate world-wide, conflicts over whether to fight for social changes v. the right to vote will persist  Conflicts will also erupt over using peaceful means, promoted by “suffragettes”, or more radical approaches like those of Emmeline Pankhurst of the Women’s Social and Political Union  Still others will advocate that the only way to gain rights was by adopting Socialism

Social Darwinism in Europe Herbert Spencer argued in Social Statistics that survival of the fittest was a natural process and that governments should not intervene, justifying the takeover of the weak by the strong Rabid nationalists often argued for a doctrine of war for advancing the race, such as the National Association of Italy The German concept of the “Volk” was propagandized by Houston Stewart Chamberlain to suggest that modern-day Germans were the successors to the Aryan race (who originally created western culture)

Social Darwinism Elsewhere In the 1880’s expansion into Asia and Africa was being done by most European countries The “Mad Scramble for Africa” led Bismarck to call the “Berlin Conference” Social Darwinism justified European sovereignty over inferior peoples Rudyard Kipling’s “White Man’s Burden” further exemplified the mood of the era

Women’s Movement

Olympe de Gouges ( ) French playwright, political activist, and early feminist Declaration of the Rights of Women and the Female Citizen, 1789 Demanded that French women be given the same rights as French men

Mary Wollstonecraft ( ) English author and early feminist Wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Women, 1792 Argued that women are not naturally inferior to men. They only appear inferior because of a lack of education

John Stuart Mill ( ) English reformer, essayist, and influential utilitarian socialist Wrote the Subjection of Women, 1869 Opposed the social and legal inequalities imposed on women. Argued that inequalities were a relic from the past and “a hindrance to human development”

Henrik Ibsen ( ) Norwegian playwright and social critic Wrote A Doll’s House, 1879 Was critical of the marriage norms of the time. Did not condemn a women for divorcing her husband and leaving the children in order to find herself.

An Angel in the House The idea that middle class woman was an “an angel in the house” Her most important roles was to be the family’s moral guardian Middle class women were expected to supervise the domestics, manage the household, and direct the children’s education Rising standards of living made it possible for men and women to marry at a younger age. But, rising cost of child-rearing caused decline

Economic Changes for Women By mid-1850’s, women and children made up half of the labor force in cotton industry. Paid half of a man’s salary for similar work

Economic Changes for Women Opportunities limited to factory work for most lower class; teaching, nursing, secretarial, and clerk jobs. After 1800, many working class women were clerks, typists and telephone operators