a. Intensity of and unwillingness to compromise on religious beliefs b. Conflict between the belief /value systems of different religions c. Conflict over sacred space

a. Fundamentalism vs. secularism b. Religious beliefs vs. legal system (laws banning the caste system in India) c. Freedom of religion vs. government control (communism or theocracy)

1) Northern Ireland was formed in 1921 when the majority Protestant population decided not to join the newly-formed Catholic Republic of Ireland 2) Fighting is between the Catholic Irish Republican Army (IRA), who want to be part of Ireland, and the Protestant Ulstermen, who want Northern Ireland to remain part of the United Kingdom

Great Britain : England, Wales, and Scotland United Kingdom: Great Britain and Northern Ireland

a) 1960s-1990s: Approximately 4,000 people were killed—almost all civilians—in violent uprisings, riots, and bombing campaigns in Northern Ireland b) The Good Friday Agreement was signed in 1998 by the IRA and the British government to end the worst of the violence

1) A power struggle over control of the Muslim world has continued since the division of Islam in 632 2) The worst violence has been in Iraq, which has a mixed population (Shia 60-65%, Sunni %) and is sandwiched between Sunni Saudi Arabia and Shia Iran 3) Sectarian conflict has also led to violence in Lebanon, Syria, Pakistan, Bahrain, and Yemen

1) Long history beginning with Muslim invasions of Europe ending with the Battle of Tours (732) in the west and the Battle of Vienna (1683) in the east 2) Crusades (11 th – 15 th centuries): European knights invaded Palestine to retake Jerusalem from the Muslims a)Conquered Jerusalem in 1099 and set up a Christian kingdom based in Jerusalem b)Jerusalem retaken by Saladin’s Muslim army in 1187

3) Fall of Constantinople to the Muslim Ottomans in 1453, ending the Orthodox Christian Byzantine Empire 4) Reconquista: Ferdinand and Isabella defeat the Muslim in Spain, unite the country under a Christian monarchy, and expel all Muslims and Jews in 1492

5) In the late 20 th century, Muslim Palestinians began using terrorism against Christians and Jews—including airline hijacking, kidnapping, assassination, and bombings—in their struggle to get a homeland

“ In the 1990s violence occurred between Muslims and non- Muslims in Bosnia, Kosovo, Macedonia, Chechnya, Azerbaijan, Tajikistan, Kashmir, India, the Philippines, Indonesia, the Middle East, Sudan and Nigeria.” -- Albert Weatherhead, Harvard University

7) September 11, 2001 Islamists use airplanes to attack the World Trade Center and the Pentagon in the US, killing almost 3,000 people => Afghanistan and Iraq Wars

1) Nigeria is 50% Muslim (predominant in North), and 40% Christian (predominant in South) 2) The insurgency in north and central Nigeria by Islamist group Boko Haram, which wants to create an Islamic state in Nigeria and impose Sharia Law, has claimed 3,600 lives since 2009

1) Hindu princes (rajahs) came into conflict with Muslim rulers during the Muslim Delhi Sultanate and Mughal reigns in South Asia 2) India divided between Muslim Pakistan and Hindu India in 1947

a)Indo-Pakistani Wars in 1947, 1965, 1971, 1999 b)Constant skirmishes and battles over the region of Kashmir c)Both countries have nuclear weapons d)Attack on the Indian Parliament by Pakistani terrorist groups in December 2001 e)Twelve coordinated attacks throughout Mumbai (India’s largest city) in November 2008 by Pakistani terrorist groups killing 164 people and wounding over 300

a)1984 Prime Minister Indira Gandhi assassinated by Sikhs => anti-Sikh riots in which 10,000-17,000 Sikhs were killed b)Hindu vs. Muslim rioting in 1992 and 2002 killed thousands on both sides

1) “Tamil Tigers” (Hindus) fought a 25-year civil war for regional independence against the majority Buddhist government 2) Invented the idea of suicide bombing, and first terrorist group use women and children as suicide bombers 3) Civil war ended in May 2009 when government forces seized the last area controlled by Tamil Tiger rebels

1) Palestine (including Jerusalem) remained under Muslim control from 1187 until 1917, when the Ottoman Empire was forced to give it to the British after WWI 2) During WWII, the British promised both the Arabs and the Jews that they could have the land of Palestine after the war 3) Instead, Britain turned the territory over to the United Nations, which divided the land into two states; one Arab and one Jewish

a) On May 14, 1948, British troops left and the Jews declared the rebirth of Israel in their part of Palestine. The next day, six Arab nations attacked the new Jewish state b) In 1949, an armistice was signed between Israel and the Arabs and Jerusalem was split between the Israelis and Jordanians c) More than 500,000 Arabs fled during the war, mainly to the West Bank and Gaza => Palestinian refugee crisis

1) In 1967, the armies of Syria, Jordan and Egypt began amassing at the borders of Israel => June 5, 1967 Israel launches a massive pre- emptive strike against all three countries 2) In six days, Israel captured Sinai and Gaza from Egypt, Golan Heights from Syria, and West Bank and East Jerusalem from Jordan

a) In 1987, Palestinians began street riots in Gaza that spread to the West Bank in protest against the harsh Israeli occupation and their living conditions (almost 40% unemployment and living below poverty level) b) The first Intifada ended in 1993 when Israel and the Palestinians signed the Oslo Accords, giving the Palestinians limited self-rule in Gaza and the West Bank

a) Main cause: Palestinian frustration when the freedom of movement, economic opportunities, and social mobility that were expected with self- rule didn’t materialize (in fact, in some areas life got worse)

b)Much more violent and destructive than the first one since the Palestinians now had a militia and the Israelis escalated their reprisal raids c)Resulted in over 5,000 Palestinian and 1,000 Israeli deaths; Israel building a barrier fence between Israel and the West Bank; and the terrorist group Hamas gaining control of the West Bank

a) In 1389, Orthodox Serbs lost a war against the Ottoman Turks, leading to 500 years of Muslim rule of the Balkans b) At the end of WWI, the country of Yugoslavia was created, made up of six republics: Bosnia- Hercegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Slovenia

c) During WWII, Croatia and Bosnia (Catholic/Muslim) sided with the Axis while Serbia (Orthodox) fought with the Allies; Croatia set up Nazi-like concentration camps for Serbs and Jews with approximately 100, ,000 killed

d) Yugoslavia was a communist dictatorship under Josep Tito ( ) who kept nationalism under control in the six republics

a) Catholic Slovenia gained independence peacefully in 1991 b) Croatia also declared independence in 1991, but a civil war between Catholic and Serb Orthodox forces continued until 1995

a) Bosnia declared independence in 1992 => civil war between Catholic, Orthodox, and Muslims b) Orthodox guerrillas, backed by Slobodan Milosevic’s Serbian forces, began ethnic cleansing of Muslims and besieged the Bosnian capital, Sarajevo

Slobodan Milosevic

Ratko Mladic and Radovan Karadzic

Sarajevo

Memorial stone in Srebrenica for the massacred Muslims

a) December 14, 1995, the Dayton Peace Accords were signed, ending the Croatian and Bosnian civil wars b) These wars are considered the worst humanitarian crises in Europe since WWII (250,000 deaths and 3 million refugees)

a) In 1998, the Muslim Albanian minority in Kosovo formed the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) and demanded independence from Serbia b) Milosevic ordered Serbian forces to begin ethnic cleansing and bomb Muslim villages in Kosovo to put down the insurrection

c) March-June 1999 NATO carried out over 38,000 bombing missions against Serbia to try and stop the ethnic cleansing d) June 3, 1999 Serbia agreed to pull their troops out and NATO peacekeeping forces were sent in (EU peacekeepers are there now)

Belgrade, Serbia during NATO bombing raids