Chapter 10 Personality

Module 10.1 The Psychodynamic Perspective

Module 10.1 Preview Questions  What are the three levels of consciousness in Freud’s theory of the mind?  What are the structures of personality in Freud’s theory?  What are psychological defense mechanisms?

Module 10.1 Preview Questions (Cont’d)  What are the five states of psychosexual development in Freud’s theory?  What are some of the major contributions of other psychodynamic theorists?

What Is Personality?  The relatively stable set of psychological characteristics and behavior patterns that: Make individuals unique Make individuals unique Account for the consistency of their action over time Account for the consistency of their action over time

Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory  Humans must control their sexual and aggressive instincts Channel instincts in socially appropriate ways Channel instincts in socially appropriate ways  Theory accounts for how mind balances conflicting demands of instinct and social acceptability

Figure 10.1: Levels of Consciousness in Freud’s Theory

Structure of Personality  Id Unconscious drives and instincts Unconscious drives and instincts Follows the pleasure principle Follows the pleasure principle  Ego Follows the reality principle Follows the reality principle Balancing id’s demands with social approval Balancing id’s demands with social approval  Superego Moral guardian, conscience Moral guardian, conscience May impose self-punishment, guilt, shame May impose self-punishment, guilt, shame

Defense Mechanisms  Used to prevent anxiety-evoking ideas or impulses from entering conscious awareness  Examples: Repression Repression Denial Denial Reaction formation Reaction formation Rationalization Rationalization Projection Projection Sublimation Sublimation Regression Regression Displacement Displacement

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development  Personality develops through five psychosexual stages of development. Characterized by how child seeks physical pleasure from erogenous zones Characterized by how child seeks physical pleasure from erogenous zones Basic life functions viewed as being “sexual” Basic life functions viewed as being “sexual”  Conflicts emerge during each stage. Can lead to the development of fixations Can lead to the development of fixations

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development  Oral Stage: birth to 12–18 months old Erogenous zone is the mouth Erogenous zone is the mouth Too little/much gratification can lead to oral fixations Too little/much gratification can lead to oral fixations  Anal Stage: ages 18–36 months Erogenous zone is the anal cavity Erogenous zone is the anal cavity Sexual pleasure through the ability to control elimination Sexual pleasure through the ability to control elimination Conflict arises over issue of toilet training Conflict arises over issue of toilet training Anal-retentive vs. anal-expulsive personality Anal-retentive vs. anal-expulsive personality

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development (Cont’d)  Phallic Stage: ages 3–6 years Erogenous zone is the phallic region. Erogenous zone is the phallic region. Core conflict is the Oedipus complex. Core conflict is the Oedipus complex. Freud’s followers called female version of conflict the Electra complex. Freud’s followers called female version of conflict the Electra complex. Boys develop castration anxiety. Boys develop castration anxiety. Girls experience penis envy. Girls experience penis envy.

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development (Cont’d)  Latent Stage: ages 6–12 years Sexual impulses remain dormant. Sexual impulses remain dormant.  Genital Stage: puberty to adulthood Attraction to opposite gender Attraction to opposite gender Sexual energies expressed through sexual intercourse, marriage, child bearing Sexual energies expressed through sexual intercourse, marriage, child bearing

Other Psychodynamic Approaches  The theorists who followed in Freud’s footsteps are called neo-Freudians  Less emphasis on sex and aggression  Greater emphasis on social relationships, ego, concept of self

Carl Jung’s Analytical Psychology  Also believed in role of unconscious conflicts on behavior  Greater emphasis on present experiences  Personal unconscious consists of repressed memories and impulses  Collective unconscious contains archetypes (e.g., God, hero, mother)

Alfred Adler’s Individual Psychology  Emphasis on the unique potential of each individual  Conscious experience plays important role in personality Role of the creative self Role of the creative self  Inferiority complex and the drive for superiority

Karen Horney: An Early Voice in Feminist Psychology  Criticized Freud’s view of female development  Emphasized role of social and cultural forces  Importance of parent-child relationships Basic anxiety Basic anxiety Basic hostility Basic hostility  Introduced “womb envy”

Evaluating the Psychodynamic Perspective  Contributions Detailed and comprehensive theory of personality Detailed and comprehensive theory of personality Awareness of unconscious drives, impulses Awareness of unconscious drives, impulses  Criticisms To much importance on sexual and aggressive drives To much importance on sexual and aggressive drives Too little emphasis on social relationships Too little emphasis on social relationships Lack of evidence and questions of validity Lack of evidence and questions of validity Difficult to test scientifically Difficult to test scientifically

Module 10.2 The Trait Perspective

Module 10.2 Preview Questions  What are the three types of traits in Allport’s trait model?  What was Cattell’s view on the organization of traits?  What three traits are represented in Eysenck’s model of personality?  What is the “Big Five” trait model of personality?  What role do genes play in personality?

Trait Perspective  Personality consists of relatively enduring personal characteristics called traits.  Trait theorists focus on: How people differ in traits How people differ in traits How traits can be measured How traits can be measured How traits are organized How traits are organized

Gordon Allport: A Hierarchy of Traits  Personality traits are inherited but are influenced by experience  Hierarchy of traits: Cardinal traits Cardinal traits Central traits Central traits Secondary traits Secondary traits

Hans Eysenck: A Simpler Trait Model  Described personality using three major traits: Introversion-Extraversion Introversion-Extraversion Neuroticism Neuroticism Psychoticism Psychoticism  Four basic personality types Four basic personality types Four basic personality types  Biological differences responsible for individual variations in personality traits Continue

1. Neuroticism 2. Extraversion 3. Openness 4. Agreeableness 5. Conscientiousness Five Factor Model of Personality: The “Big Five”

Genetic Basis of Traits  Heredity plays important role in shaping personality  Focus is on understanding the interactions of biology and environment

Evaluating the Trait Perspective  Contributions: Has intuitive appeal Has intuitive appeal Led to the development of personality tests Led to the development of personality tests  Drawbacks: Circular reasoning – labels rather than explains behavior Circular reasoning – labels rather than explains behavior Behavior may not be as stable across time and situations as assumed by trait theorists Behavior may not be as stable across time and situations as assumed by trait theorists  Emerging view is that behavior involves an interaction between traits and situational factors

Module 10.3 The Social-Cognitive Perspective

Module 10.3 Preview Questions  What are expectancies and subjective values?  What is reciprocal determinism?  What are situation and person variables?

Traditional Behavioral View  Personality is shaped by environmental influences Personality consists of the sum total of an individual’s learned behavior Personality consists of the sum total of an individual’s learned behavior  Behavior is learned on the basis of classical and operant conditioning

Social-Cognitive Theory  To explain behavior, must take into account: Cognitive aspects of behavior, such as expectancies about outcomes of behavior Cognitive aspects of behavior, such as expectancies about outcomes of behavior Social aspects of behavior, such as imitation Social aspects of behavior, such as imitation  Personality comprises both: Learned behavior Learned behavior The ways we think about ourselves and our world The ways we think about ourselves and our world

Julian Rotter: The Locus of Control  Explaining, predicting behavior depends on knowing individual’s: Reinforcement history Reinforcement history Expectancies Expectancies Subjective values Subjective values  People acquire general expectancies about ability to obtain reinforcements. External vs. internal locus of control External vs. internal locus of control

Albert Bandura  Model of reciprocal determinism Model of reciprocal determinism Model of reciprocal determinism  Emphasized role of observational learning  Distinguished between two types of expectancies: Outcome expectations Outcome expectations Efficacy expectations Efficacy expectations Continue

Walter Mischel  Behavior is influenced by: Situational variables Situational variables Person variables Person variables ExpectanciesExpectancies Subjective valuesSubjective values CompetenciesCompetencies Encoding strategiesEncoding strategies Self-regulatory systems and plansSelf-regulatory systems and plans  Possible interaction between emotions and personal variables

Evaluating the Social-Cognitive Perspective  Contributions: Improved understanding of how behavior is influenced by environmental factors Improved understanding of how behavior is influenced by environmental factors Broadened learning theory to include cognitive influences Broadened learning theory to include cognitive influences View of people as active seekers and interpreters of information View of people as active seekers and interpreters of information  Criticisms: Limited view of personality Limited view of personality Fails to account for unconscious influences, heredity Fails to account for unconscious influences, heredity Too little focus on subjective experience Too little focus on subjective experience

Module 10.4 The Humanistic Perspective

Module 10.4 Preview Questions  What is self theory?  How do collectivistic and individualistic cultures view the concept of self?

Carl Rogers: The Importance of Self  We possess an inner drive to strive toward self-actualization  Personality expressed through the conscious experience of directing self toward fulfilling one’s unique potential

Carl Rogers’s Self Theory  Self as center of the human experience  One primary function of the self is the development of self-esteem Unconditional vs. conditional positive regard Unconditional vs. conditional positive regard Self-esteem results from how close one comes to meeting one’s self-ideals Self-esteem results from how close one comes to meeting one’s self-ideals  Developed client-centered therapy

Abraham Maslow  The innate drive toward self-actualization shapes personality Drive motivates us to develop our unique potentials as human beings Drive motivates us to develop our unique potentials as human beings  Humanists view personality as a continuing process of personal growth and realization Important to be aware of and accept all parts of one self Important to be aware of and accept all parts of one self

Culture and Self-Identity  Collectivistic Cultures: emphasis on people’s social roles and obligations Values group goals over individual goals Values group goals over individual goals  Individualistic Cultures: emphasis on individual identity and personal accomplishments Values independence and self-sufficiency Values independence and self-sufficiency

Evaluating the Humanistic Perspective  Contributions: Profound impact on society Profound impact on society Focused attention on need to understand subjective or conscious experience of individuals Focused attention on need to understand subjective or conscious experience of individuals Method of client-centered therapy remains highly influential Method of client-centered therapy remains highly influential Helped restore concept of self to psychology Helped restore concept of self to psychology

Evaluating the Humanistic Perspective (Cont’d)  Criticisms: Difficult to scientifically study conscious experience Difficult to scientifically study conscious experience Possible negative consequences from emphasis on self-fulfillment (e.g., self indulgent and self absorbed) Possible negative consequences from emphasis on self-fulfillment (e.g., self indulgent and self absorbed) Does drive for self-actualization really exist? Does drive for self-actualization really exist?

Module 10.5 Personality Tests

Module 10.5 Preview Questions  What are self-report personality inventories?  What are projective tests of personality?

Measuring Personality  Historical Attempts: Examination of facial features Examination of facial features Phrenology Phrenology  Modern Strategies: Self-report personality inventories Self-report personality inventories Projective tests Projective tests

Self-Report Personality Inventories  Objective tests: Can be scored objectively Can be scored objectively Construction based on research Construction based on research  Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI): Constructed to help diagnose mental disorders Constructed to help diagnose mental disorders Raw scores converted into standard scores Raw scores converted into standard scores

Evaluation of Self-Report Personality Tests  Strengths: Relatively inexpensive to administer and score Relatively inexpensive to administer and score People may be more willing to disclose personal information People may be more willing to disclose personal information May be used to predict wide range of behavior May be used to predict wide range of behavior  Weakness: Susceptible to potential response biases Susceptible to potential response biases

Projective Tests  Person is presented with unstructured or ambiguous stimuli Assumption that people “project” needs, drives, motives through their responses Assumption that people “project” needs, drives, motives through their responses  Examiner must interpret person’s responses

Evaluation of Projective Tests  Drawbacks: Scoring of responses based on subjective impressions Scoring of responses based on subjective impressions Problem of stimulus pull Problem of stimulus pull Questions about overall validity and utility Questions about overall validity and utility  Proponents argue they can yield valuable information about personality

Application: Module 10.6 Building Self-Esteem

 Acquire competencies  Set realistic, achievable goals  Enhance self-efficacy expectations  Create a sense of meaningfulness in your life  Challenge perfectionist expectations  Challenge the need for constant approval