Human Memory Memory Forgetting Imagination inflation Encoding Interference theory Amnesia Retrieval Retroactive interference Mood Retention Proactive interference Self-referencing Mnemonic devices False memories Primacy effect Short term Procedural/Episodic/Semantic memory Working memory Repression Misinformation effect Long term memory Suppression Elaborate rehearsal Encoding failure Source confusion Recency effect Retrieval failure Retrieval cues Serial position effect

Memory refers to the mental processes that enable us to acquire, retain, and retrieve information. There are three main process of memory. Encoding refers to the process of transforming information into a form that can be entered and retained by the memory system. Storage is the process of retaining information in memory so that it can be used at a later time. Retrieval involves recovering the stored information so that we are consciously aware of it. The stage model of memory states that memory involves three stages: sensory memory, short-term or working memory, and long-term memory.

Stage Model of Memory Sensory memory registers information from the environment and holds it for a very brief period of time. An important function of sensory memory is to very briefly store sensory impressions so that they overlap with one another. Memory researchers believe there is a separate sensory memory for each sense; however, your auditory sensory memory holds sound information a little longer. Short term or working memory is the “workshop” of consciousness, and provides temporary storage for information that is currently being used in some cognitive activity.

Although information in short-term memory lasts longer than information in sensory memory, the duration is still very short. Information can be retained in short-term memory through the process of rehearsal; maintenance rehearsal occurs when the information is repeated. Visual sensory memory is one type of sensory memory. Visual sensory memory is also known as iconic memory. Iconic memory was first studied by the psychologist George Sperling (1960). Auditory sensory memory is known as echoic memory. In contrast to iconic memories, which decay very rapidly, echoic memories can last as long as 4 seconds (Cowan, Lichty, & Grove, 1990). This is convenient as it allows you—among other things—to remember the words that you said at the beginning of a long sentence when you get to the end of it, and to take notes on your psychology professor’s most recent statement even after he or she has finished saying it. In some people, iconic or echoic memory seems to last longer than usual. For visual images, this phenomenon is known as eidetic imagery (or “photographic memory”). Information is encoded in short term memory so that it may be retrieved later. When short-term memory is filled to capacity, new information sometimes displaces currently held information, through the process of maintenance. Chunking is a method implemented to increase the amount of information that is stored in short- term memory. When you are presented with a sequence of information that you must retain, chunking, or grouping related items together into a single unit, is beneficial. The cognitive psychologist, Richard Cowan, disagreed with the findings of George Miller and challenged the 7+ or – 2 theory. Cowan suggested that people automatically chunk stimuli to help them remember.

The phonological loop is one of three components of working memory and is specialized for verbal material. The second component of working memory is the visuospatial sketchpad and is specialized for spatial or visual material, i.e. remembering the layout of a room or a town. The central executive is the third component of working memory which controls attention, integrates information, and manages the activities of the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad. The central executive also initiates retrieval and decision processes and integrates information coming into the system.

Encoding and Retention Strategies An effective encoding strategy is elaborative rehearsal. Elaborative rehearsal is making a story to enhance memory. Elaborative rehearsal leads to better retention. Applying information to yourself called the self-reference effect and the use of visual imagery both enhance encoding. One way to prevent the decay of information from short-term memory is to use working memory to rehearse it. Maintenance rehearsal is the process of repeating information mentally or out loud with the goal of keeping it in memory. We engage in maintenance rehearsal to keep a something that we want to remember (e.g., a person’s name, address, or phone number) in mind long enough to write it down, use it, or potentially transfer it to long-term memory.

Long Term Memory Long term memory refers to the storage of information over extended periods of time. The amount of information that can be held in long-term memory is limitless. There are three major categories of information stored in long-term memory; procedural, episodic, and semantic. Procedural memory refers to the long-term memory of how to perform different skills, operations, and actions. Episodic memory refers to your long-term memory of specific events or episodes, including the time and place that they occurred. Semantic memory is general knowledge that includes facts, names, definitions, concepts, and ideas.

Two dimensions of long term memory are explicit memory, memory with awareness, and implicit memory, memory without awareness. Explicit memory includes episodic memory and semantic memory while implicit memory includes procedural memory, priming, and learning through classical conditioning. Priming, are changes in behavior as a result of experiences that have happened frequently or recently. Priming refers both to the activation of knowledge (e.g., we can prime the concept of “kindness” by presenting people with words related to kindness) and to the influence of that activation on behavior (people who are primed with the concept of kindness may act more kindly).

Explicit memory is assessed using tools in which the individual being tested must consciously attempt to remember the information. A recall memory test is a measure of explicit memory that involves bringing from the memory information that has been previously been remembered. Recall provides clues, or cues that enable us to generate previously remembered information. Free recall is a measure of memory with no prompts or clues.

One measure of the influence of priming on implicit memory is the word fragment test, in which a person is asked to fill in missing letters to make words. _ i b _ a _ y _ h _ s _ _ i _ n _ o _ k _ h _ i s _

Cued recall includes a retrieval cue in the request for memory….fill-in the blank questions use cued recall. Recognition memory test is a measure of explicit memory that involves determining whether information has been seen or learned before…multiple-choice tests, for example. Recall is more difficult than recognition…essay tests require recall and recognition. Essay questions require recall and recognition…in recall, you must first generate an answer and then determine whether it seems to be the correct one…during recognition, you must determine which item from a list seems most correct.

Recall and recognition memory measures tend to be correlated. Students who do better on a multiple-choice exam will also, by and large, do better on an essay exam A third way of measuring memory is known as relearning. Measures of relearning (or savings) assess how much more quickly information is processed or learned when it is studied again after it has already been learned but then forgotten… Relearning can be a more sensitive measure of memory than either recall or recognition because it allows assessing memory in terms of “how much” or “how fast” rather than simply “correct” versus “incorrect” responses. Relearning also allows us to measure memory for procedures like driving a car or playing a piano piece, as well as memory for facts and figures.

Semantic Network Model Information in long-term memory is clustered and associated. Clustering means organizing items into related groups, or clusters during recall. There are several models to show how information is organized in long-term memory. One such model is the semantic network model which is a useful way of conceptualizing how information is organized in long-term memory. When one concept is activated in the semantic network, it can spread in any number of directions, activating other associations in the semantic network.

Why do we forget? Encoding refers to the process of transforming information into a form that can be entered and retained by the memory system. A reason as to why we tend to forget is that we never encoded the information into long-term memory, also called Encoding failure Sometimes we encode automatically…the letters on a number 5 Encoding memory failure tends to explain everyday memory failures such as absent-mindedness. Absent-mindedness tends to occur because we do not tend to or encode the information at the time when it is presented. Interference theory; retroactive/proactive interference

Freud argued that we implement ego defense mechanisms when memories become too unpleasant, we tend to either suppress them, deliberately, consciously making the effort to forget the information. Repression is the motivated forgetting that occurs unconsciously. Suppression is the motivated forgetting that occurs consciously The inability to recall long-term memories because of inadequate or missing retrieval cues is retrieval cue failure.

Retrieval Failure Retrieval refers to the process of accessing, or retrieving stored memories So we tend to forget when we do not encode or because stored memories may decade When one memory is competing with or replacing another memory, we tend to forget; this process is __________ interference theory. In retroactive interference occurs when a new memory interferes with remembering an old memory; while proactive interference occurs when an old memory interferes with remembering a new memory. When trying to recall information from a list, we sometimes experience retrieval failure due to the serial position effect. The serial position effect refers to the tendency to easily retrieve information from the beginning and the end of the list than from the middle. The primacy effect is the tendency to recall the first items in a list, and the recency effect, the tendency to recall items from the end of the list. One of the best ways to increase access to information in memory is to retrace or recreate the original learning condition, the encoding specifity principle.

Memory Construction Elizabeth Loftus is on the forefront of research of memory distortion. Through her research, Loftus confirmed that post event exposure to misinformation can distort the recollection of the original event. Confusion can also arise when the true source of the memory is forgotten or when a memory is attributed to the wrong source, a phenomenon called source confusion. False memories are distorted or fabricated memories of events that did not happen, however, the false memory may feel authentic and is often accompanied by all the emotional distress that surrounds real memories.

Accuracy and Inaccuracy in Memory and Cognition Cognitive biases are also known to influence memory. Cognitive biases are errors in memory or judgment that are caused by the inappropriate use of cognitive processes. Confirmation bias leads to faulty processing in that the person seeks information that verifies and confirms already held beliefs Functional fixedness impedes problem solving and cognitive processing in that persons only see objects for the purposes intended. Salience, we tend to remember the exception, not the rule. Cognitive accessibility, is the idea that some memories are more highly activated than others.

Similar to developing false memories, research has shown that people can be led to develop beliefs and memories for events that did not happen to them. We must be very careful when interviewing children regarding events that they have experienced, memories for events before the age of 3 are unreliable Hypnosis, to recover memories ripped families apart We recover memories all the time…with the right retrieval cues A retrieval cue is a prom or hint that can help trigger recall of a stored memory. With significant or rare moments, flashbulb memory is thought to involve the recall of very specific details or images surrounding those significant, rare, or vivid memories.

With the right retrieval cue, you can often access stored information that seemed to be completely unavailable. Mood tends to evoke memories that are consistent with the mood, a tendency called mood congruence Vividly imagining an event markedly increases confidence that the event actually occurred in childhood, an event called imagination inflation. When we retain a memory for an event but not the context in which we acquired it, we are experiencing source amnesia…attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined… Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories

Improving memories Study the material, engage in various encoding techniques such as self-referencing or elaborate rehearsal The use of elaborative rehearsal, self-referencing with visual imagery enhances encoding. Make the material meaningful Activate retrieval cues… Environment can cue certain memories, The context effect is the tendency to remember information more easily when the retrieval occurs in the same setting in which you originally learned the information Whereas context-dependent learning refers to a match in the external situation between learning and remembering, state- dependent learning refers to superior retrieval of memories when the individual is in the same physiological or psychological state as during encoding. When trying to recall information from a list, we sometimes experience retrieval cue failure due to the serial position effect

Put things into categories… Memories that are stored in LTM are not isolated but rather are linked together into categories—networks of associated memories that have features in common with each other…remember the semantic network model, organization improves memory Some categories have defining features that must be true of all members of the category. Members of categories (even those with defining features) can be compared to the category prototype, which is the member of the category that is most average or typical of the category. We retrieve information that is prototypical of a category faster than we retrieve information that is less prototypical

Use mnemonic devices Minimize interference Sleep..memory consolidation takes place during sleep Test yourself What can impair memory performance… When pathways in these neural networks are frequently and repeatedly fired, the synapses become more efficient in communicating with each other, and these changes create memory. This process, known as long-term potentiation (LTP), refers to the strengthening of the synaptic connections between neurons as result of frequent stimulation…drugs can distress this process. Because the new patterns of activation in the synapses take time to develop, LTP happens gradually. The period of time in which LTP occurs and in which memories are stored is known as the period of consolidation. Drugs that block LTP reduce learning, whereas drugs that enhance LTP increase learning

The Hippocampus The hippocampus helps us encode information about spatial relationships, the context in which events were experienced, and the associations among memories. The hippocampus also serves in part as a switching point that holds the memory for a short time and then directs the information to other parts of the brain, such as the cortex, to actually do the rehearsing, elaboration, and long-term storage. Without the hippocampus, which might be described as the brain’s “librarian,” our explicit memories would be inefficient and disorganized.

Different brain structures help us remember different types of information. The hippocampus is particularly important in explicit memories, the cerebellum is particularly important in implicit memories, and the amygdala is particularly important in emotional memories. The hippocampus is handling explicit memory, the cerebellum and the amygdala are concentrating on implicit and emotional memories, respectively.

Research shows that the cerebellum is more active when we are learning associations and in priming tasks, and animals and humans with damage to the cerebellum have more difficulty in classical conditioning studies. The storage of many of our most important emotional memories, and particularly those related to fear, is initiated and controlled by the amygdala. Evidence for the role of different brain structures in different types of memories comes in part from case studies of patients who suffer from amnesia, a memory disorder that involves the inability to remember information.

Some memories seem to be localized at specific spots in the brain. A memory trace is the brain changes that are associated with a particular stored memory. Processing Memories in the Brain Amnesia is severe memory loss and is characterized by two types. For people who suffer damage to the brain, for instance, as a result of a stroke or other trauma, the amnesia may work backward. People that have retrograde amnesia are unable to remember some or all of their past, especially episodic memories for recent events. Retrograde amnesia often results from a blow to a head. LTP takes time (the process of consolidation), retrograde amnesia is usually more severe for memories that occurred just prior to the trauma than it is for older memories, and events that occurred just before the event that caused memory loss may never be recovered because they were never completely encoded. Organisms with damage to the hippocampus develop a type of amnesia that works in a forward direction to affect encoding, known as anterograde amnesia. The inability to form new memories is anterograde amnesia. Henry Gustav Molaison (before he died in 2008, he was referred to only as H. M.) who had parts of his hippocampus removed to reduce severe seizures. Following the operation, Molaison developed virtually complete anterograde amnesia. Although he could remember most of what had happened before the operation, and particularly what had occurred early in his life, he could no longer create new memories. Molaison was said to have read the same magazines over and over again without any awareness of having seen them before.

Alzheimer’s Disease Dementia is a broad term that refers to the decline and impairment of memory, reasoning, language, and other cognitive functions. The most common form of dementia is Alzheimer’s disease which is irreversible. Researchers still don’t know what causes Alzheimer’s disease.