Chapter 7 Memory

Objectives 7.1 Overview: What Is Memory? Explain how human memory differs from an objective video recording of events. 7.2 Constructing Memory Identify the ways that effortful processing can help to encode information into memory. 7.3 The Three Stages of Memory Discuss how the three memory stages are involved in encoding new information into memory. 7.4 Organizing Information in Memory Describe the main ways that information is organized in long-term memory.

Objectives 7.5 Retrieval from Memory Examine the successful retrieval of information from long-term memory. 7.6 Reconstructing Memories Explain how information from long-term memory may include misinformation. 7.7 Forgetting Analyze how forgetting improves memory. 7.8 How to Improve your Memory Identify principles that can improve memory.

What is Memory? Memory: The enduring consequence in the mind of our experiences with the world

Constructing Memory Encoding: The process of taking new information and storing it in short- and long-term memory Automatic processing: Information made available without conscious effort Incidental memory: Explicit knowledge you did not intentionally encode Priming: The activation of information in memory from a related cue

Effortful Processing In contrast to automatic processing, memory construction requires a great deal of effortful processing in order to ensure that information is encoded into memory.

Levels of Processing Elaboration: Tying new information to that already stored in memory Self-reference effect: Associating information with oneself to aid in retrieval Generation effect: Memory is better for information that we create ourselves.

Mnemonics Method of loci: Mnemonic for remembering items by placing them on a familiar path Link method: Forming links between concepts to make them more memorable

The Three Stages of Memory 1. We experience a flash of input information through our senses, called sensory memory. 2. Some information from this first stage is encoded into a short-term memory buffer, where we hold it in our current thoughts. 3. Some information from the first stage is encoded into a long-term memory store, where it remains indefinitely for future access.

Sensory Memory Iconic memory: Sensory memory for visual information taken in Echoic memory: Sensory memory for the sound reaching your ears

Short-Term Memory or Working Memory Maintenance rehearsal: Reactivating information in short-term memory to keep it in mind Chunking: Grouping separate elements into a related unit in memory Working memory span: The amount of different pieces of information that can be held in conscious memory for a short time and reported back correctly

Long-Term Memory The processing that takes place in short- term memory also determines whether the information gets encoded into the next stage, called long-term memory.

Organizing Information in Memory Within long-term memory there are different kinds of information stores, and their organization is accomplished in different ways.

Semantic Memory Concept: A “building block” or basic unit of knowledge Category: A cluster of similar concepts Conceptual hierarchy: Organization of related concepts into levels of categories

Semantic Network Model In a semantic network, related concepts are clustered together in ways that reflect their meaningful associations.

Schemas The schema is a pattern of knowledge that occurs across experiences.

Episodic Memory Episodic memory: Recall of your own personal, autobiographical experiences Flashbulb memory: An emotional or vivid event that appears to be well remembered

Procedural Memory Procedural memory captures actions: how we move, perform, and manipulate objects.

Retrieval from Memory Retrieval refers to the process of bringing information from long-term memory back into consciousness.

Retrieval Cues Cued recall: Retrieving information from related pieces of information Encoding specificity: The principle that cues present at encoding will be the best cues for retrieval Mood congruence: Matching emotional mood as a cue at encoding and retrieval to improve memory

Adding Context Encoding specificity suggests the context of an event, or the circumstances surrounding it, is very important for retrieval. The need to reinstate context in order to recall experiences in memory may be the cause of an amnesia we all suffer from: childhood amnesia.

Retrieval Practice Testing can be a means of improving learning, not just of assessing its results. Taking a memory test enhances later retention, a phenomenon known as the testing effect. The overlearning principle shows that performance can still be improved even when accuracy is at 100%.

Reconstructing Memories Source Monitoring: Memory for the circumstances of acquiring information The misinformation effect: Adding new, incorrect information to a memory after the event False memories: Inaccurate information incorporated into memory –Implicit memory –Imagination inflation –Continued influence effect

Measures of Forgetting The ability to forget may be a key feature of human memory that aids, rather than inhibits, our intelligence.

The Speed of Forgetting The speed of forgetting depends on the difficulty of the learned material (i.e., how easy it is to encode deeply), its organization, and physiological factors such as stress and sleep.

Relearning Relearning: A measure of forgetting and learning that is based on how easy it is to learn information again at a later time

Theories of Forgetting Decay theory: The notion that information fades from memory on its own Interference theory: New knowledge can disrupt recently learned memories Spacing effect: Learning is improved if study effort is distributed over time

Types of Forgetting Repression: Mentally pushing away explicit recall of unpleasant memories Alzheimer’s disease: A progressive memory disorder in which people lose access to explicit memory Dementia: Clinical diagnosis of major memory loss with age or disease

How to Improve Your Memory Actively construct memory Schedule study sessions Test to learn Cue retrieval