Chapter 6 Memory

Module 6.1 Remembering

Module 6.1 Preview Questions  What are the basic processes and stages of memory?  What are the major types of long-term memory?  What is the constructionist theory of memory?  What are flashbulb memories?  What factors influence the accuracy of eyewitness testimony?  Are recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse credible?

What Is Memory?  The system that allows us to retain information and bring it to mind  Learning cannot occur without memory

How we Form Memories  Each of the three memory systems encodes & stores memories in a different way, but they work together to transform sensory experience into a lasting record that has a pattern of meaning

Sensory Memory  Storage system that holds sensory information for a very short time Held in the “sensory register” Held in the “sensory register”  Iconic Memory: sensory register for visual stimuli Eidetic imagery or photographic memory Eidetic imagery or photographic memory  Echoic Memory: sensory register for auditory stimuli

D J B X H G C L Y Sensory Memory: Sperling (1960,1963)  Partial report condition Used an auditory cue to signal which row subject should report High, medium, & low Most achieved almost perfect accuracy  Capacity of sensory memory is about 9 or more items All but 3 or 4 items disappear from sensory memory before they can enter consciousness

Short-Term Memory (STM)  Sensory memories are transferred into short-term or working memory  STM retains and processes information for up to 30 seconds  Holds information long enough for it to be actively worked on or processed by the brain

How Much Information Can STM Hold?  6293 Now recall the numbers Now recall the numbers  Now recall the numbers Now recall the numbers  Now recall the numbers Now recall the numbers  Now recall the numbers Now recall the numbers  Now recall the numbers  Now recall the numbers  Now recall the numbers  Why were these numbers easier to remember?

Storage Capacity of STM  Storage capacity is about 7 items, plus or minus 2 George Miller’s “Magic 7” George Miller’s “Magic 7”  Enhanced by: Chunking Chunking Maintenance rehearsal Maintenance rehearsal

Long-Term Memory (LTM)  Retains information for periods of time beyond the capacity of STM  Consolidation: the process of converting unstable, fresh memories into stable, long- term memories First 24 hours after acquisition is critical. First 24 hours after acquisition is critical. Dreams occurring during REM sleep may play an important role. Dreams occurring during REM sleep may play an important role.

Transferring Information to LTM  Depends on semantic coding or coding by meaning  Elaborative Rehearsal: focus on the meaning of material while rehearsing Associate new material with familiar, meaningful information Associate new material with familiar, meaningful information  How is information in LTM organized? Semantic network model Semantic network model

Levels-of-Processing Theory  Level of processing determines how well or how long information is stored in memory.  Deep processing: encode based on meaning  Shallow processing: encode by superficial characteristics

Implicit vs. Explicit Memory  Implicit memory: Evoked without deliberate effort to remember Can be demonstrated using a priming task. Can be demonstrated using a priming task.  Explicit memory: Requires conscious effort to remember

Reliability of LTM: Can We Trust Our Memories?  Constructionist Theory: memory is a reconstructive process Memories may be distorted Memories may be distorted Better able to recall information consistent with existing memory schema Better able to recall information consistent with existing memory schema

Flashbulb Memories  Vivid, lasting, and highly detailed memories Left by extremely stressful or emotionally arousing personal or historical events Left by extremely stressful or emotionally arousing personal or historical events  Despite vividness, may still be inaccurate and prone to distortions

Eyewitness Testimony  Can be flawed and mistaken Misinformation effect Misinformation effect Misinformation effect Misinformation effect  Accuracy influenced by: Ease of recall Ease of recall Degree of confidence Degree of confidence General knowledge about a subject General knowledge about a subject Racial identification Racial identification Types of questions Types of questions Facial characteristics Facial characteristics Continue

Recovery of Repressed Memories  Controversial issue  Total lack of memory of traumatic childhood events is rare But possible such memories may be lost But possible such memories may be lost  False childhood memories have been induced in experimental studies  But are recovered memories genuine?

Module 6.2 Forgetting

Module 6.2 Preview Questions  What is decay theory?  What is interference theory?  What is retrieval theory?  What is motivated forgetting?  How is recall related to the methods used to measure it?  What is amnesia, and what causes it?

Retrieval Theory  Forgetting is the result of a failure to access stored memory.  How can the retrieval process breakdown? Encoding failure Encoding failure Encoding failure Encoding failure Lack of appropriate retrieval cues Lack of appropriate retrieval cues Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenonTip-of-the-tongue phenomenon Continue

Lack of Retrieval Cues  Information may remain inaccessible because of lack of appropriate retrieval cues  Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

Memory Failures: Forgetting  Most of our memory problems arise from memory’s “seven sins” – which are really by-products of otherwise adaptive features of human memory

Transience Absent- Mindedness Blocking MisattributionSuggestibility BiasPersistence Why Memory Fails

Transience  The impermanence of a long-term memory; long-term memories gradually fade in strength over time Forgetting curve Forgetting curve Relearning Relearning Savings method Savings method Transience

Decay (or Trace) Theory  Memories gradually fade and deteriorate over time.  Ebbinghaus’s (1885) early experimental studies Ebbinghaus forgetting curve Ebbinghaus forgetting curve Ebbinghaus forgetting curve Ebbinghaus forgetting curve Savings method Savings method Continue

Decay Theory (Cont’d)  Massed vs. Spaced Practice Effect Massed practice (or cramming) causes mental fatigue that interferes with learning and retention. Massed practice (or cramming) causes mental fatigue that interferes with learning and retention.  Weakness of theory: fails to account for unevenness of memory decay over time

Absentmindedness  Forgetting caused by lapses in attention  Pseudoforgetting- some forgetting not really forgetting because never inserted into memory Usually due to lack of attention Usually due to lack of attention  Ineffective encoding- some approaches to encoding lead to more forgetting than others Absent-Mindedness

Blocking  Forgetting that occurs when an item in memory cannot be accessed or retrieved Proactive interference Proactive interference Retroactive interference Retroactive interference Serial position effect Serial position effect Primacy effect vs. recency effectPrimacy effect vs. recency effect Blocking

Minimizing Interference  Sleep on it  Rehearse fresh memories Overlearning Overlearning  Give yourself a break  Avoid sequential study of similar material

Serial Position Effect  Tendency to recall items at the start or end of a list better than items in the middle of the list Interference is likely explanation for effect Interference is likely explanation for effect  Primacy Effect: tendency to recall items better when they are learned first  Recency Effect: tendency to recall items better when they are learned last

 Memory fault that occurs when memories are retrieved, but they are associated with the wrong time, place, or person  Source Monitoring- process of making attributions about the origins of memories Make decisions at time of retrieval about where memories come from Make decisions at time of retrieval about where memories come from  Source-monitoring error- occurs when a memory is derived from one source is misattributed to another source Misattribution

Repression or Motivated Forgetting  Psychological defense mechanism proposed by Sigmund Freud Threatening memories are kept hidden from awareness Threatening memories are kept hidden from awareness  Problems with Freud’s concept of repression Doesn’t account for ordinary forgetting Doesn’t account for ordinary forgetting Traumatized people often retain vivid if somewhat fragmented memories of experience Traumatized people often retain vivid if somewhat fragmented memories of experience Cannot directly test scientifically Cannot directly test scientifically

 Process of memory distortion as a result of deliberate or inadvertent suggestion Reconstructive memory Reconstructive memory Memory creation Memory creation Recovered memory controversy Recovered memory controversy Motivated forgettingMotivated forgetting Suggestibility

 An attitude, belief, emotion, or experience that distorts memories Mood-congruent memory- a memory process that selectively retrieves memories that match (are congruent with) one’s mood Mood-congruent memory- a memory process that selectively retrieves memories that match (are congruent with) one’s mood Self-consistency bias- nurture the bias that attitudes, values, beliefs, & behaviors are consistent over time Self-consistency bias- nurture the bias that attitudes, values, beliefs, & behaviors are consistent over time Bias

 Memory problem in which unwanted memories cannot be put out of mind Persistence

Measuring Memory  Recall tasks Free recall Free recall Serial recall Serial recall Paired-associates recall Paired-associates recall  Recognition tasks

Amnesia  Severe loss of memory  Types Retrograde amnesia Retrograde amnesia Anterograde amnesia Anterograde amnesia  Causes Physical damage or disease Physical damage or disease Psychological: Dissociative amnesia Psychological: Dissociative amnesia

Module 6.3 The Biology of Memory

Module 6.3 Preview Questions  Where are memories stored in the brain?  What is the role of the hippocampus in memory?  What is LTP, and what role do scientists believe it plays in memory function?  What have scientists learned about the genetic basis of memory?

Brain Structures in Memory  Karl Lashley’s (1890–1958) search for the engram  Neuronal Networks: memory circuits in the brain that consist of complicated networks of nerve cells  Role of the hippocampus

Connections Between Neurons  Kandel’s work with a sea snail (Aplysia)  Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) Synaptic connections strengthened by repeated stimulation Synaptic connections strengthened by repeated stimulation May lead to conversion of STM into LTM May lead to conversion of STM into LTM

Genetic Bases of Memory  Gene regulation Proteins necessary for making long-term memories Proteins necessary for making long-term memories  May lead to development of drugs to treat or even cure memory disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease  No scientific evidence for current “memory-enhancing” drugs

Application: Module 6.4 Powering Up Your Memory

Using Mnemonics to Improve Memory  Acronyms  Acrostics  Popular sayings and rhymes  Visual cues and imagery  Chunking

General Suggestions for Improving Memory  Pay attention  Practice to overlearn  Use external memory aids  Link time-based tasks to external cues  Mentally rehearse what intend to do  Enhance context-dependent memory effects  Control stress  Adopt healthy habits

End of Chapter 6 Have a nice day!