1 Chapter 14- Human Genome Students know why approximately half of an individual ’ s DNA sequence comes from each parent. Students know the role of chromosomes in determining an individual ’ s sex.

2 Content Objectives Explain how sex is determined. Explain how small changes in DNA cause genetic disorders. Explain why sex-linked disorders are more common in males than in females. Describe nondisjuction, and the problems it causes.

3 I. Human Heredity A. Human chromosomes 1. A picture of chromosomes arranged in a picture is called a karyotype.

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5 2. A normal human has 46 chromosomes, 23 pairs. 3. The number of chromosomes helps identify what the organism is. 4. Egg and sperm are haploid, containing half the amount of chromosomes-23. These cells are called sex cells. A female chromosomes is XX, a male is XY.

6 5. All other cells have 46 chromosomes in them, they are diploid. These cells are called autosomes. 6. All human egg cells carry a single X chromosome.

7 7. Half of all sperm cells carry an X and half carry a Y chromosome. 8. This ensures that just about half of the zygotes will be 46XX and the other half will be 46XY.

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9 B. Human Traits 1. Human genes are inherited according to the same principals that Mendel discovered. 2. A pedigree chart shows relationships within a family.

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11 C. Human Genes 1. The human genome- our complete set of genetic information includes tens of thousands of genes. 2. Some of the very first genes to be identified were those that control blood type.

12 D. Blood Group Genes 1. Human blood comes in a variety of genetically determined blood groups. 2. The different blood types are A, B, AB O plus there is a Rh+ or Rh- factor.

13 BLOOD GROUPS PhenotypeGenotypeAntigenAntibodies AI A I A or I A I o A B B I B I B or I B I o B A AB I A I B A and B O I o I o A and B

14 E. Recessive Alleles 1. Many human genes have become known through the study of genetic disorders. 2. In most cases genetic disorders are USUALLY recessive.

15 F. Dominant Alleles 1. Not all genetic disorders are caused by a recessive allele. 2. Two examples of a genetic disorder caused by autosomal dominant alleles are dwarfism and Huntington ’ s disease.

16 G. Codominant alleles 1. Sickle cell disease is caused by a codominant allele.

17 H. From Gene to molecule 1. In both cystic fibrosis and sickle cell disease, a small change in the DNA of a single gene affects the structure of a protein, causing a series genetic disorder.

18 Sickle Cell Disease Has a bent and twisted shape of the RBC ’ s. As a result, blood stops moving through these vessels, damaging cells, tissues and organs. Sickle cell produces physical weakness, and damage to the brain, heart, and spleen.

19 II. Human Chromosomes A. Human Genes and Chromosomes 1. Chromosomes 21 and 22 are the smallest human autosomes. Chromosome 22 contains 43 million DNA base pairs! Chromsomes 21 contains about 32 million! 2. MILLIONS of base pairs!

20 B. Sex Linked Genes 1. Many sex-linked genes are found on the X chromosomes. More than 100 sex-linked genetic disorders are found on the X. 2. Males have just one X chromosome, thus all X-linked alleles are expressed in males even if they are recessive.

21 3. Some sex-linked disorders are colorblindness, hemophilia, and Duchenne muscular dystrophy.

22 G. Chromosomal disorders 1. The most common error in meiosis occurs when homologous chromosomes fail to separate. This is known as nondisjunction. 2. If nondisjunction occurs, abnormal numbers of chromosomes may find their way into gametes, and a disorder of chromosome numbers may result.

23 3. IF two copies of an autosomal chromosome fail to separate during meiosis, an individual may be born with three copies of a chromosome. 4. This is known as trisomy

24 5. The most common trisomy is down syndrome- having an extra chromosome on pair number babies are born with Down syndrome.

25 7. Disorders also occur among the sex chromosomes. Two of these are Turner syndrome and Klienefelter ’ s. 8. In Turner syndrome there is only 1 X. The female is sterile and their sex organs do not develop at puberty.

There have been no reported cases of babies being born without the X chromosome, indicating that the X chromosome contains genes that are vital for the survival and development.

27 III. Human Molecular Genetics A. Human DNA analysis 1. DNA fingerprinting is used by molecular biology to identify individuals.

28 2. The human genome project is an ongoing effort to analyze the human DNA sequence. 3. In gene therapy, an absent or faulty gene is replaced by a normal, working gene.