Hannah Butler hbutler@stvincent.ac.uk Access Psychology Hannah Butler hbutler@stvincent.ac.uk

Unit 3-Research methods Learning outcomes: The learner will: 1) Recognise research methods commonly used in Psychology 2) Recognise different research designs, their strengths and weaknesses. 3) Demonstrate their understanding of the importance of ethical considerations associated with psychological research 4) Consider different sampling methods and their limitations

The learner can: 1) Define and describe research methods used in Psychology 2) Evaluate research methods 3) Apply critical considerations to given circumstances 4) Select an appropriate sampling method for a given scenario 5) Justify the use of the method chosen

What will you learn? Experiments Observations Survey methods Case studies Ethics

Assessment 1 ½ hour unseen exam

Research Methods in Psychology How do we study Psychology?

Psychologists and Research Psychology is based upon different theories and explanations about human behaviour and mental processes How do we study these?

Are we all “psychologists”? We all use informal methods to research the world around us We form our own views and explanations based on ‘common sense’ How does a ‘scientific’ approach differ to this?

Different types of data Behaviour – what we ‘do’ Inner experiences – our inner thoughts and feelings Material – physiological data such as heart rate Symbolic – unconscious actions and desires

Goals of Psychological Research Define and Describe: What happened? Explain: Why did that happen? Predict: Under what conditions is that likely to happen again? Control: How can I we apply our principle to make this happen again? To make sure it never happens again?

The Scientific Method in Psychology Observation The Scientific Method in Psychology Define the Problem Propose a hypothesis Gather Evidence Keep Hypothesis Reject Hypothesis Build a theory Publish results

For example….John Bowlby’s theory of attachment He produced the Maternal Deprivation hypothesis. But first….. What is attachment? Bowlby’s theory of attachment Bowlby’s Maternal Deprivation hypothesis

An attachment is an emotional connection or bond between the child and the principle caregiver, characterised by mutual affection, frequent interaction, a desire for proximity (to be close) and selectivity (the child wants to be with the caregiver rather than anyone else). Whilst the caregiver is usually the mother, attachments can also form with the father or some other person. Attachment is a strong, enduring, emotional and reciprocal bond between two people, especially an infant and caregiver

Maccoby (1980) identified four characteristics of attachment:

The infant seeks proximity, trying to stay near the caregiver

Both the infant and caregiver feel distressed when separated.

Both the infant and caregiver feel pleasure when reunited http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wDZUfGBUSeY

The infant is generally always aware of the caregiver and makes frequent contact.

Who was John Bowlby? Born in London to an upper-middle-class family. He was the fourth of six children and was brought up by a nanny. He married Ursula Longstaff, on April 16, 1938, and they had four children. Studied psychology and pre-clinical sciences at Trinity College, Cambridge.  After Cambridge, he worked with maladjusted and delinquent children. He believed that mental health and behavioural problems could be attributed to early childhood. He worked in the psychology field from the 1940s-1980s, developing his theory of attachment. He is the founding father of attachment His theory is controversial and has been criticised.

Bowlby believed that attachment behaviours are instinctive and will be activated by any conditions that seem to threaten the achievement of proximity, such as separation, insecurity and fear. Bowlby stated that the fear of strangers represents an important survival mechanism, built in by nature – babies are born with the tendency to display certain innate behaviours (called social releasers) which help ensure proximity and contact with the mother/mother figure, eg crying, smiling, crawling.

Key aspects of Bowlby’s theory Innate: the infant is biologically programmed to cry, cling, make eye contact, smile and recognise human faces and sounds, the mother (or substitute mother) is programmed to respond to these behaviours. This results in mutual attachment, and both infant and mother feel anxiety when separated.

Monotropy By six-eight months of age the child shows separation anxiety and stranger fear, which demonstrates its attachment to the mother. Bowlby claimed that this was it’s main attachment and was different from all other’s, The Father had no special emotional importance for the child.

Development: The mother provides security and a safe base from which the child can explore its world. This unique relationship acts as a role model for all future relationships. Attachment is essential for the child’s psychological well-being as food is for it’s physical well-being.

Critical period: Bowlby’s views were influenced by attachment behaviours in young animals e.g. newly hatched ducklings follow the mother closely wherever she goes. He proposed that the human infant was genetically programmed to form an attachment, critical period between about six months and three years, during which the baby can most easily form an attachment. Because the critical period is biologically programmed, if an attachment is not formed during this time, it will probably be too late

Bowlby’s stress on the importance of this attachment is underlined by his prediction that if it failed to develop, or was damaged in the first five years of life, there would be long-term and irreversible problems in the child’s emotional, social and cognitive development. He called this “maternal deprivation”.

John Bowlby’s maternal deprivation hypothesis Bowlby used the term maternal deprivation to refer to the separation or loss of the mother as well as failure to develop an attachment. If the attachment figure is broken or disrupted during the critical two year period the child will suffer irreversible long-term consequences of this maternal deprivation. 

The underlying assumption of Bowlby’s Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis is that continual disruption of the attachment between infant and primary caregiver (i.e. mother) could result in long term cognitive, social, and emotional difficulties for that infant.  The implications of this are vast

Long term consequences of maternal deprivation Delinquency,  • Reduced intelligence,  • Increased aggression,  • Depression,  Affectionless psychopathy-an inability to show affection or concern for others. Such individuals act on impulse with little regard for the consequences of their actions. For example, showing no guilt for antisocial behaviour.

Child of rage documentary

Beth Thomas now The most disturbing aspect of Beth’s behaviour was her complete lack of remorse and concern for her actions. She was well aware that her actions were wrong and hurtful but this didn’t matter to her. Not long after these incidents her parents brought her to a therapist named Connell Watkins, who diagnosed Beth with a severe case of Reactive Attachment Disorder. It was once known to laymen as “failure to thrive“ although this is inaccurate as RAD is much more than that.

Reactive attachment disorder Reactive Attachment Disorder  is characterized by markedly disturbed and developmentally inappropriate ways of relating socially. It can take the form of a persistent failure to initiate or respond to social interactions in an appropriate way—known as the “inhibited” form— or can present itself as indiscriminate sociability, such as excessive familiarity with strangers—known as the “disinhibited form“. Beth’s condition involved a complete inability to bond with any human being and a complete lack of empathy.

This is also known as sociopathy or psychopathy although those terms are not used about children under the age of 18. RAD arises from a failure to form normal attachments to primary caregivers in early childhood. This results from severe early experiences of neglect, abuse, abrupt separation from caregivers (Beth’s mother passed away when Beth was one) between the ages of six months and three years. It also results from a frequent change of caregivers, or a lack of caregiver responsiveness to a child’s communicative efforts. That Beth Thomas developed RAD is certainly beyond her control.  The assessment is not a criticism, nor is it blame against the child.  It names the cluster of symptoms Beth displayed due to her brief, harrowing life with her father.

Beth’s journey to recovery Beth’s condition was so extreme that in April 1989 a professional therapist, Connell Watkins, removed Beth from Tim and Julie’s home and brought Beth to her own home to give her intensive behaviour modification. In spite of Beth’s dangerous behaviour the therapist was confident she could help Beth since her professional history included working successfully with extremely disturbed children, such as 9-year-old murderers.

At first all of her freedom was restricted until Beth demonstrated that she could be trusted. It was a difficult transition for Beth. Children who don’t trust do not like rules. At first Beth was locked inside her bedroom at night so she couldn’t escape and hurt other children or adults in the house. She had to ask permission to do everything from play with a particular toy to getting a glass of water. Over time these restrictions were slowly removed as Beth’s behaviour improved. Within one year of living in the house her behaviour was so recovered that Beth was permitted to share a bedroom with the therapist’s own daughter

A remarkable transition took place in Beth Thomas. She learned empathy and remorse when someone was hurt. She learned about right and wrong. When she talked about her earlier abuse of Jonathan she wept openly. She no longer talked about hating anyone or wanting to kill anyone. She didn’t abuse herself anymore. Her therapy took years to complete and Beth, like any child abuse victim, will likely live always with the consequences of her abuse.

Beth Thomas grew into a mentally healthy woman. She obtained a degree in nursing and has authored a book entitled “More Than a Thread of Hope.” She and her adoptive mother Nancy Thomas established a clinic for children with severe behaviour disturbances. Nancy Thomas wrote a book entitled Dandelion on my Pillow, Butcher Knife Beneath (Coping with Personal Problems).  Nancy and Beth Thomas’ website is www.attachment.org  

How did Bowlby test his hypothesis? He carried out the famous “44 juvenile thieves” experiment in 1944

Aim and Background AIMS: In the early 1940s it was recognised that children could suffer if they were separated from their mother for a long period of time. However, the extent of such suffering had not been clearly established; and it was not properly appreciated that separation from the mother could produce long-term negative effects. Bowlby was a psychoanalyst and psychiatrist, working at the London Child Guidance Cinic in the 1930s and 1940s.

Disrupted relationships... Bowlby had become interested in the effect of children’s disrupted relationships with their parents when, as a medical student, he volunteered to work in a residential children’s home and encountered a range of abnormal behaviour. He thought many mental health and behavioural problems could be attributed directly to early childhood experiences.

Bowlby noted that the median age for appearing in court for theft was 13 years, suggesting that theft was a childhood condition. In 1938 9/10 crimes were thefts and half of these were committed by someone under the age of 21.

Juvenile Theft... Over 1/6 thefts were carried out by children. In the early 1940s it was recognised that children could suffer if they were separated from their mother for a long period of time. However, the extent of such suffering had not been clearly established; and it was not appreciated that separation from the mother could produce long-term negative effects. Bowlby set out to investigate this.

Procedure PROCEDURE (METHOD): Between 1936 and 1939 an opportunity sample of 88 children was selected from the clinic where Bowlby worked - he literally picked suitable children from consecutive referrals. Of these, 44 were juvenile thieves and had been referred to him because of their stealing. The other 44 ‘controls’ had been referred to him due to emotional problems - though they did not display anti-social behaviour. Half the children in each group were aged 5-11; the other half 12-16. The 2 groups were roughly matched for aged and IQ.

Procedure There were 31 boys and 13 girls in the ‘theft group’ and 34 boys and 10 girls in the control group. Of the ‘theft group’, 24 were referred by their school, 8 by parents, 3 by the court and 9 by the Probation Service. 15 of the thieves were under 9 years old and half were under 11; only one under 11 had been charged. In 22 cases there was chronic and serious stealing, mainly over a long time. In 7 cases the stealing had lasted more than 3 years. 8 of the thieves had been involved in only a few thefts while 4 had only been involved in one.

Child Guidance Clinic

Arrival at the Clinic.... On arrival at the clinic, each child had their IQ tested by a psychologist who also assessed the child’s emotional attitudes towards the tests. At the same time a social worker interviewed a parent to record details of the child’s early life. The psychologist and social worker made separate reports. A psychiatrist (Bowlby) then conducted an initial interview with the child and accompanying parent. The 3 professionals then met to compare notes and read reports from school, courts, etc. The psychiatrist conducted a series of further interviews with the child and/or parent over the next few months to gather more in-depth information about the history and psychological characteristics of the child.

Childhood aggression....

The Thieves.... The thieves had a wide variety of experiences. Some had been unstable for year; some had received a sudden shock - eg: bereavement; and some had had an exceptional moral lapse. Each child from both groups was eventually classified into one of 6 categories:-

Bowlby’s Results RESULTS : One of the ‘Normals’ had been stealing since the age of 14 but only  from his mother who was taking a lot of his earnings. The other boy, an 8-year-old had only been stealing pennies. 5 children suffered with mild Depression, 2 having a very low IQ. Some were severely depressed, often associated with a specific event. They had been undemonstrative and unresponsive since infancy.

Bowlby’s results Bowlby found that some of the children had experienced “early and prolonged separation from their mothers”. He diagnosed 32% (14) of the thieves as ‘affectionless psychopaths’, but none of the controls were. Of the thieves diagnosed with Affectionless Psychopathy, 86% (12) had experienced a long period of maternal separation before the age of 5 years. (They had spent most of their early years in residential homes or hospitals and were not often visited by their families.

Juvenile prison.

Conclusions Bowlby concluded that maternal separation/deprivation in the child’s early life caused permanent emotional damage. He diagnosed this as a condition and called it Affectionless Psychopathy. According to Bowlby, this condition involves a lack of emotional development, characterised by a lack of concern for others, lack of guilt and inability to form meaningful and lasting relationships.

Conclusions Bowlby reasoned that the thieves could steal precisely because they didn’t care for others.13/23 (56%) level iv persistent thieves were ‘Affectionless’. Affectionless psychopaths could also be very impulsive. Bowlby claimed that once the attachment bond was broken, the negative effects could not be reversed or undone.

Mother’s at work.... He thought that the affectionless character was depressive at an earlier stage in life and had suffered total loss of mother or foster mother during infancy and early childhood. The implications were that this research could be used to inform on issues concerning parenting - especially the potential negative effects of mothers going out to work.

Hot topic!! Mixing alcoholic drinks with energy drinks might increase your desire to drink. “Mixing an energy drink with an alcoholic beverage increases motivation fir more alcohol in college students“; first published online 22/07/2012 then in the journal Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research)

As Britain’s “binge drinking culture” and it’s impact on individuals and society is constantly in the press, this study provides a topical hook for some Research Methods. In your groups, design an experiment to test this hypothesis.