Causes and Prevention of Multiple Problem Behaviors: The Theory of Triadic Influence and its Applications Brian R. Flay, D.Phil., Professor Department of Public Health Oregon State University Presentation for H699, January 2010

2 BEHAVIOR Intentions/Decision Attitudes Toward Behavior Social Normative Beliefs Self-Efficacy Proximal Correlates of Behavior Social skills Self management Self-efficacy Expectancy theories Attitude theories Social Norms theories Conformity theories

3 E nvironmentIntra P ersonal Social S ituation ENVIRONMENTGENETICS BEHAVIOR Intentions/Decision Distal Causes of Behavior Class Conflict Low SES, Anomie Social Disorganization Strain Theory (Merton) Radical Theories Social Control (Elliott) Family Systems (Brooks) Peer Clustering (Oetting ) Biological theories Psychoanalytic theories Resilience (Garmazey) Personality theories Self-Control (Gottfredson & Hirschi)

4 Note: Some of these theories cross cells, particularly the sociological theories. Some explicitly integrative theories cross many cells (e.g., Brooks, Elliott, Jessor). A Matrix of Theories (Petraitis, Flay & Miller, Psychological Bulletin, 1995)

5 BEHAVIOR Intentions/Decision E nvironment Attitudes Toward Behavior Social Normative Beliefs Intra P ersonal Self-Efficacy Social S ituation THE THEORY OF TRIADIC INFLUENCE GENETICS ENVIRONMENT

6 DECISIONS/INTENTIONS SOCIAL S ITUATION BIOLOGY/ P ERSONALITY THE THEORY OF TRIADIC INFLUENCE ATTITUDES TOWARD THE BEHAVIOR CULTURAL E NVIRONMENT SOCIAL NORMATIVE BELIEFS Trial Behavior EXPERIENCES: Expectancies -- Social Reinforcements -- Psychological/Physiological SELF-EFFICACY BEHAVIORAL CONTROL Nurture/CulturalBiological/Nature Intrapersonal StreamSocial/Normative StreamCultural/Attitudinal Stream

7 DECISIONS/INTENTIONS SOCIAL S ITUATION BIOLOGY/ P ERSONALITY THE THEORY OF TRIADIC INFLUENCE ATTITUDES TOWARD THE BEHAVIOR CULTURAL E NVIRONMENT SOCIAL NORMATIVE BELIEFS Trial Behavior EXPERIENCES: Expectancies -- Social Reinforcements -- Psychological/Physiological SELF-EFFICACY BEHAVIORAL CONTROL Nurture/CulturalBiological/Nature Intrapersonal StreamSocial/Normative StreamCultural/Attitudinal Stream Values/ Evaluations Knowledge/ Expectancies Perceived Norms Information/ Opportunities Interpersonal Bonding Social Competence Interactions w/ Social Instit’s Others’ Beh & Atts Motivation to Comply Skills: Social+General Sense of Self/Control Self Determination Distal Influences Proximal Predictors Levels of Causation Ultimate Causes Social/ Personal Nexus Expectancies & Evaluations Affect and Cognitions Decisions Experiences

8 DECISIONS/INTENTIONS SOCIAL S ITUATION BIOLOGY/ P ERSONALITY THE THEORY OF TRIADIC INFLUENCE ATTITUDES TOWARD THE BEHAVIOR CULTURAL E NVIRONMENT SOCIAL NORMATIVE BELIEFS Trial Behavior EXPERIENCES: Expectancies -- Social Reinforcements -- Psychological/Physiological SELF-EFFICACY BEHAVIORAL CONTROL Nurture/CulturalBiological/Nature Intrapersonal StreamSocial/Normative StreamCultural/Attitudinal Stream Values/ Evaluations Knowledge/ Expectancies Perceived Norms Information/ Opportunities Interpersonal Bonding Social Competence Interactions w/ Social Instit’s Others’ Beh & Atts Motivation to Comply Skills: Social+General Sense of Self/Control Self Determination l Distal Influences Proximal Predictors Levels of Causation Ultimate Causes Social/ Personal Nexus Expectancies & Evaluations Affect and Cognitions Decisions Experiences a b c d e f g h i j k m n o p q r s t u v w x

9 DECISIONS/INTENTIONS SOCIAL S ITUATION BIOLOGY/ P ERSONALITY THE THEORY OF TRIADIC INFLUENCE ATTITUDES TOWARD THE BEHAVIOR CULTURAL E NVIRONMENT SOCIAL NORMATIVE BELIEFS Trial Behavior EXPERIENCES: Expectancies -- Social Reinforcements -- Psychological/Physiological SELF-EFFICACY BEHAVIORAL CONTROL Nurture/CulturalBiological/Nature Intrapersonal StreamSocial/Normative StreamCultural/Attitudinal Stream Distal Influences Proximal Predictors Levels of Causation Ultimate Causes Social/ Personal Nexus Expectancies & Evaluations Affect and Cognitions Decisions Experiences a b c d e f g h i j k m n o p q r s t u v w x C F I B E H A D G

10 DECISIONS/INTENTIONS SOCIAL S ITUATION BIOLOGY/ P ERSONALITY THE THEORY OF TRIADIC INFLUENCE ATTITUDES TOWARD THE BEHAVIOR CULTURAL E NVIRONMENT SOCIAL NORMATIVE BELIEFS Trial Behavior EXPERIENCES: Expectancies -- Social Reinforcements -- Psychological/Physiological SELF-EFFICACY BEHAVIORAL CONTROL Nurture/CulturalBiological/Nature Intrapersonal StreamSocial/Normative StreamCultural/Attitudinal Stream Distal Influences Proximal Predictors Levels of Causation Ultimate Causes Social/ Personal Nexus Expectancies & Evaluations Affect and Cognitions Decisions Experiences a b c d e f g h i j k m n o p q r s t u v w x Related Behaviors J K C F I B E H A D G

11 THE BASICS OF THE THEORY OF TRIADIC INFLUENCE & Personality Biology BEHAVIOR Values Evaluations Bonding Sense of Self Environment Social Skills Self Determin- ation SELF EFFICACY Social Competence Decisions/ Intentions Religion Culture Perceived Norms Motivation to Comply Others' Beh&&Atts SOCIAL NORMATIVE BELIEFS Context Social ATTITUDES Informational Environment Cultural Knowledge Expectancies Evaluations Values Environment THE BASICS OF THE THEORY OF TRIADIC INFLUENCE

12 The TTI Developmental-Ecological System P SS S E P Eval Behavior SNBSelf Efficacy Att Intentions Will + Skill Exp McNB KnowValue Social Bonds Role Models Self- Control Com- petence SNB Values Environment Knowledge Environment E NVIRONMENT S ituation P erson EE Affective/Control Substreams Cognitive/Competence Substreams DEVELOPMENT & TIME Ultimate Underlying Causes Levels of Causation Distal Predisposing Influences Proximal Immediate Predictors

13 1. Provides a meta-theoretical view –Higher order description and explanation Integrates multiple levels of organization –No one existing theory can provide a satisfactory description –Certainly, no one variable can provide an adequate explanation 2. Each behavioral choice is influenced by a complex system of PERSONAL, SOCIAL and ENVIRONMENTAL factors THE THEORY OF TRIADIC INFLUENCE Implications for Description and Explanation System Postulates 1 & 2

14 THE THEORY OF TRIADIC INFLUENCE System Postulates 3 & 4: 3. All three (triadic) streams of influence each have two substreams (making 6 altogether): –3 informative/cognitive/thoughts substreams –3 control/affective/feelings substreams 4. All (sub)streams of influence flow from causes most distant (ultimate and distal) to causes closest to (proximal to) the behavior of interest -- a cascade of multiple and interacting influences –Proximal causes predict most behavior –Distal and ultimate causes help explain it

15 8. Once a behavior occurs, the resulting reactions and/or experiences (thoughts and feelings) feed back to change the original causes E.g., engaging in a behavior changes one’s self-efficacy, relationships with parents and peers, and attitudes 9. Feedback changes the likelihood of engaging in the same or a similar behavior in the future Thus, causes and effects are in a continuous cycle: –With each behavior changing the causes, and –The changed causes leading to the same or similar behavior over time –Mutually influential individual  contextual relations –Developmental regulation THE THEORY OF TRIADIC INFLUENCE System Postulates 8 & 9:

16 Feedback Reciprocal feedback occurs through all streams and levels –Engaging in a behavior changes one’s attitudes, normative beliefs and self efficacy –It also changes one’s knowledge, relationships with parents and peers, and sense of self

The reactions to certain behaviors feed back to influence the causes of related behaviors –e.g., smoking and other drug use - Related behaviors have similar causes, with the more distal causes being the most similar - Less related behaviors (e.g., smoking and skiing) have fewer causes in common - Even related behaviors have some differences in proximal causes THE THEORY OF TRIADIC INFLUENCE System Postulates 10:

18 A single behavior Eg, smoking Two closely related behaviors. Eg, smoking and drinking Less and less related behaviors. Eg, smoking, drug abuse, sex, exercise. Closely and less related behaviors: Ultimate causes may be the same, distal predictors less so. E S P E S P E S P E S P E S P E S P E S P

19 OLD APPROACHES TO PREVENTION COULD NOT HAVE WORKED WELL –Informational approaches focus only on knowledge –Values clarification approaches focus only on values –Decision-making focuses only on the attitudinal stream –Resistance skills programs often focus only on one social skill –Only a few recent programs include changing social normative beliefs IMPLICATIONS OF TTI FOR BEHAVIOR CHANGE AND PREVENTION

20 NEW INTERVENTIONS NEED TO BE BROADER, LONGER, DEEPER,... –But should not throw out all of the content of traditional approaches –Add family participation and parenting/communication skills –Teach multiple relevant skills –Special interventions for children in high-risk families (genetics) –Consider how to impact broad sociocultural influences reduce sales/access to minors (alcohol and tobacco) eliminate advertising, alcohol and tobacco, billboards and TV increase taxes on tobacco and alcohol change school lunches reduce exposure to violence on TV and in movies train kids to be advocates –USE BEHAVIORAL CHANGE STRATEGIES FROM ALL SIX SUBSTREAMS IMPLICATIONS OF TTI FOR BEHAVIOR CHANGE AND PREVENTION

21 Causes, Reasons, and Strategies for Contextual and Behavioral Change The Big 3 Causes Of Behavior INTRA P ERSONAL Genetic/Biological, Personality S OCIAL SITUATION/CONTEXT Family, School, Friends SOCIO-CULTURAL E NVIRONMENT Culture/Ethnicity, SES, Media Exposure, Social (Dis)organization The 6 Causes Of Behavior Sense of self, self determination, self control General competence, social skills Social attachment to (bonding with) family, friends, school Observed (modeled) behaviors & attitudes of others Value of expected consequences Knowledge of expected consequences Big 3 Self-EfficacySocial Normative BeliefsAttitudes toward the behavior Six Reasons For Behavior Change I really want to OR I can't help myself I find it easier to do than not to To please others -- Social acceptance Because "everyone else is doing it" To improve myself (or my health) in ways I value To avoid negative consequences or gain positive ones 6 Classes Of Strategies for Contextual Change Improve group empowerment Improve general/social competencies Change sources and levels of social support Change normative environnent, role models Change the socio- cultural/values environnent Change the informational environment 6 Classes Of Strategies for Behavioral Change Improve self control/image; Provide cues & reminders Teach, learn, practice improved (social) skills Increase social attachments; Provide/find sources of social support Model desired behavior; Correct or alter normative expectations Teach cultural values, clarify or (re)develop values/evaluations Provide information, change expectations Instruction in problem-solving and decision-making skills Modes Or Channels Of Change Individual counseling, small groups, schools; media for modeling and cues Modeling and increasing opportunities in communities, schools, families and small groups, parent training, support groups, Societal opportunities, legislation, policies, taxes, media, communities, schools, health care systems

22 The first test of the TTI and changing multiple behaviors at once: The African American Youth Project: “ABAN AYA” Afro-centric programming, grades 5-8 –History, culture, Kwanza values –Name means Protection + Self Determination –Targeted drug use, violence, delinquency and unsafe sex School-based randomized trial –4 schools per condition – 3 arms –Social Development Curriculum (SDC) vs School + Community (SC) vs control (Health Enhancement Curriculum - HEC) Program development informed by the TTI Dose-response effectiveness on multiple behaviors (Archives of Pediatric & Adolescent Medicine, 04) Multiple papers on moderation and mediators

23 AAYP Programs Developed and Tested Social Development Curriculum (SDC) –Development of pro-social behavioral skills, including problem solving (and decision-making), personal relationships (including safe sex or abstinence), conflict resolution (and non- violence), and remaining drug free. Intensive School/Community Program (S/C) –All of the above plus parent involvement, school environment changes, and community involvement. Health Enhancement Curriculum (HEC) –Focused on exercise, nutrition and oral health.

24 AAYP Classroom Content INFORMATION –Prevalence and nature of risky behaviors –Consequences of engaging in risky behaviors –On the proper use of medicines SOCIAL INFLUENCES –Awareness of social influences from peers, family, media, etc –Corrections of normative misperceptions PROBLEM SOLVING –Decision making –Goal setting SOCIAL SKILLS –Assertiveness/Resistance skills –Risk management or avoidance –Conflict resolution, mediation –Social networking CULTURAL PRACTICES AND VALUES –Cultural pride/history (Kwanzza - Nguzo Saba) –Articulation of community roles

25 AAYP Intensive School/Community Intervention Comprehensive classroom program Enhanced parent involvement Parent Training/Education School Health Promotion Task Force School-wide staff development Community-Based Organization involvement Institutionalization in schools & communities

26 Sense of Self/Control Social Competence Self Determination Skills: Social+General Self-Efficacy, Behavioral Control Interpersonal Bonding Others’ Behs & Atts Motivation to Comply Perceived Norms Social Normative Beliefs Information/ Opportunities Interactions w. Social Instit’s Values/ Evaluations Knowledge/ Expectancies Attitudes Toward The Behavior Decisions/Intentions Behavior Decision-making and Problem-solving skills Alternatives, Information & Consequences Values Education, Goal setting African-American History & Values Media literacy Community, Etc. Norms awareness & clarification Attachment Empathy African-American Identity & Sense of Self Self-control & Anger management Social & Self- management Skill Building Social Service Coordination Mentoring School-wide changes Parent effectiveness training Identification of African-American role models/heroes Mapping of ABAN AYA onto the TTI

27 Classroom Strategies of Effective Prevention Programs OVERALL PHILOSOPHY –Developmental and spiral –Culturally appropriate (Afrocentric) –Behavioral skills development DURATION AND INTENSITY –Four years -- grades 5-8 –16-20 sessions each year –[+ 4-5 sessions grades 9 & 10] PARENT INVOLVEMENT –Interactive homework assignments –Evening presentation of "skill skits" HEALTH EDUCATOR –Professional outsider (Health Educator) –Socratic teaching style ACTIVITIES –Question box –African and AA Proverbs –“Ujima” Group activities –Role Play - Practice, Correction, Reinforcement –Video presentations –Rap music

28 Male substance use growth curves (logit) (Aban Aya)

29 Male violence growth curves by condition (Aban Aya)

30 Greatest effects on those most needy! (Segawa et al., 2004)

31 Why Positive Youth Development (PYD) or Social and Character Development? Increasing behavioral problems in schools –Including violence, substance use, unsafe sex, and other disciplinary referrals Seems to have worsened with increased attention to instruction for NCLB Link of classroom behavior management to teacher time on task (teaching) Link of student behavior to student time on task (learning) Comprehensive education needs to address Achievement, Behavior and Character (ABCs)

32 Positive Action is Comprehensive Multiple Levels: –Classroom curriculum –Teacher training –School-wide climate –Family –Community Multiple Domains –Character education –Social & emotional learning –Prevention program –Academic achievement Multiple Outcomes: –School engagement: Attendance, Truancy –Behaviors: Violence, Substance use, Sexual behaviors –School-level indicators: Disciplinary referrals, Suspensions –Achievement: Grades, Standardized test scores

33 You feel good about yourself when you do positive actions. C.f., Cognitive Behavior Therapy and Positive Psychology Basic Philosophy (Theory of Action) of the Positive Action Program & Circle You feel bad about yourself when you do negative actions. C.f. Depression

34 The Positive Action Program Targets Multiple Behaviors By teaching that: –When you do good, you feel good –And there’s always a positive way of doing things AND By teaching the positive actions that help: –Individuals, families, schools and communities develop positive self identities.

35 In the classroom curriculum and in all other materials, the Positive Action content is taught school-wide through six units: Unit 1. Self-Concept: What It Is, How It’s Formed, and Why It’s Important (the Thoughts-Actions-Feelings Circle). Unit 2. Physical and Intellectual Positive Actions for Body & Mind Unit 3. Social/Emotional Positive Actions for Managing Yourself Responsibly Unit 4. Social/Emotional Positive Actions for Getting Along with Others by Treating Them the Way You Like to be Treated (Character Education and Social-Emotional Learning) Unit 5. Social/Emotional Positive Actions for Being Honest with Yourself and Others (Mental Health) Unit 6. Social/Emotional Positive Actions for Improving Yourself Continually

36 The POSITIVE ACTION Program Components K–12 classroom curriculum over 1,200 lessons - using Teacher’s Kits (manuals and materials for each grade), classroom teachers present 15–20-minute lessons Principal’s Kits (Elementary and Secondary) a school-climate program to promote the practice and reinforcement of positive actions in the whole school population (students and staff) Counselor’s Kit used with selected individual students, small groups and families Family Kit contains prepared weekly home lessons paralleling the school program along with school parent-involvement activities Community Kit manuals and materials that align and encourage collaboration of all the environments (schools, families and community) involved in the program

37 Elementary Curriculum Kits Grades K–6 Grade 1 Instructor’s Kit minute lessons –Role-playing, Plays, Stories, Questions, Poetry, Games Student activity booklets/sheets and materials for 30 students Hands-on activities –Puppets, flannel board characters, games –Role-playing, stories, questions, plays Posters, music, and stickers

38 Other Program Components Climate Development Kits –Provide site-wide change and reinforcement Counseling Program –Counselor Kit, Lessons for individual students or small groups Family Program –Classes, Home Kit Community Program –Community messages and activities, civic engagement, and media messages Focused Topic Kits –Drug education, conflict resolution Community Kit Secondary Climate Development Kit

39 How You Like To Be Treated Feelings Empathy How to Treat Others Conflict Resolution Communica -tion Skills Social Context/ S ituations Others’ Behavior & Approval Social Bonding/ Attachment Family School Neighborhood Peers Others’ Expectations Desire to Please Social Normative Beliefs INTENTIONS/DECISIONS BEHAVIOR Experiences from Behavior Self Concept Health & Drug Info Thinking Skills Creativity Decision-Making Problem-Solving Self Management Time, Energy, Talents, Money, Anger Social & Emotional Health Socio-Cultural E nvironment Information Environment General Values Expected Consequences Evaluation of Outcomes Mass Media Regulations Religion Economy Attitudes Toward the Behavior Intra P ersonal (Individual) Social Competence Sense of Self Social Skills Self- Determination Self-Efficacy Genetics Biology Personality CLASSROOM SCHOOL FAMILY COMMUNITY Positive Action Program Components and Lessons (Exist in each Component) Positive Role Models Values Alternative Consequences Mapping of Positive Action content onto the TTI Motivation To Learn

40 Logic/Theoretic Model of the Expected Effects of the Positive Action Program Program ComponentsImmediate Outcomes Attitudes Toward Behaviors, Social Normative Beliefs, Self- Efficacy Improved School Attendance, Grades and Test Scores * Improved relationships among school administrators, teachers, parents & community. *Improved classroom management. *Increased involvement of school with parents & community. Climate Development, Family Kit, Teacher/Staff Training, K–12 Instruction Curriculum, Drug Education Supplements, Community Kit, Counseling Kit Improved Learning Environment 1.Improved character/self-concept 2.Learning/Study skills 3.Self-Management 4.Interpersonal/social skills 5.Self-honesty, responsibility 6.Goal setting, future orientation PA Unit Improved Social and Character Development Fewer Disciplinary Problems; Reduced Substance Use; Less Violence Expected Effects Expected Impact

41 Effects of PA found in early matched- control quasi-experimental studies A matched-control study of elementary schools in 2 large districts (Flay, Allred & Ordway, 2001) found: Major reductions in problem behaviors and improvements in achievement The matched-control study was replicated by Flay & Allred (2003) in a southeastern school district with the addition of pretest data and follow-up through MS and HS. –Found similar effects at the elementary level –Relative to middle schools with a low % of PA graduates (<60%), middle schools with a high % of PA graduates (80-100%) reported: Major reductions in problem behaviors and improvements in achievement With some of these effects being larger in high-mobility schools Strong dose-response relationship for all outcomes, with stronger effects occurring in middle schools with greater numbers of PA graduates –Relative to high schools with a low % of PA graduates (0-15%), high schools with a high % of elementary PA graduates (27-50%): Major decreases in problem behaviors and improvements in achievement All effects equally strong for high-mobility & minority schools Strong dose-response relationship for all outcomes

42 PA changes the “normal” effects of demographic predictors Multi-group analysis, school-level data for 29 control schools and 55 PA schools. First path parameter (Standardized) is for Controls, second is for PA schools. Average % or means shown for all variables. Percentage of variance explained (R 2 ) shown for outcomes. % African-American (25.2) % Mobility (43.7) % Free/Reduced Lunch (59.6) % White (51.7) Violence: Incidents per 100 students (3). R 2.35/.13 Out of School Suspensions (1.7). R 2.73/.51 % Absent >20 days (3.5). R 2.64/.61 Achievement R 2.92/.81 Model Fit: X 2 40 df p=.18 RMSEA.069 Constrained model fit X 2 51 df p=.09, RMSEA=.09 X 2 11df, p=.03 Grade 5 NRT (Total) (319) Florida Comprehensive Aptitude (Total) (330).59/.36.43/.24.54/ / /.25.30/.41.53/.59.00/ /

43 Hawai`i and Chicago School-based RCTs of Positive Action Funded by NIDA & IES Investigators –Flay, Allred (PAI), DuBois (UIC) –OSU -- Acock, Vuchinich Multiple Staff at each site

44 Design of Hawai`i and Chicago Trials Schools randomly assigned to conditions from matched pairs –10 per condition in Hawai`i, 7 in Chicago Matched on Archival Data –Enrollment, stability, % free/reduced lunch, per capita family income, % special education, % low English proficiency, standardized achievement scores, absenteeism, disciplinary actions, ethnic distribution Data collected from one or two cohorts of students (grades 1 & 2 in in HI, grade 3 in in Chicago) at baseline and annual or semi-annual posttests –Surveys of students, parents, teachers/staff, teacher ratings of student behavior and school records (achievement and behavior) A third trial in a rural Southeastern school district involved only 4 schools per condition

45 In Chicago Study IES $ required signed parental consent – 98.3% returned form, 79.7% signed yes This trial was one of 7 sites in a multi-site study of 7 different programs –Some of the measures were multi-site – collected by a national contractor (Mathematica Policy Research – MPR) at each of the 7 sites – and not available to PIs until about a year later Some of the measures were site-specific – specific to our evaluation of the Positive Action program – collected by UIC research staff Data were collected at beginning and end of grades 3 and 4, and end of grade 5

46 Hawai`i Baseline Equivalence: No differences are close to being statistically significant

47 Baseline Equivalence on Ethnic Distribution No differences are close to being statistically significant. Sample is fairly representative of all HI schools

48

49 Implementation Measures Classroom Teachers PA School Coordinators PA Committee Members Any School Staff Person Students Principal Weekly Implementation Reports Unit Implementation Reports End-of-Year Survey PA Committee Roster Form PA Budget PA Expenditures Report PA Committee Meeting Report Form PA School Activity Form End-of-Year Implementation Survey PA Budget and Expenditures Report End-of-Year Implementation Survey PA Program Observation Form Student Survey PA Committee Meeting Attendance Log and Report Form PA Research Team Ratings of Implementation Fidelity Consultation Notes, Teacher Interview

50 Hawaii: Teacher Report Avg. # Lessons/wk

51 Chicago: Program Implementation by Year

52 Effects of PA on positive behaviors: Results from 3 RCTs (Washburn et al.)

53 Hawaii: Lifetime Prevalence of Substance Abuse, Violent Behaviors, & Sexual Activity: 5 th grade (all significant, no significant interactions) (Beets et al., AJPH, 2009) SUBSTANCE ABUSE SERIOUS VIOLENT BEHAVIORS---SEX

54 Hawaii Trial:

55 Hawaii Teacher Ratings Dose-Response Relationship

56 (Snyder et al., in press)

57

58

59

60 Chicago: (Li et al., in review)

61 Chicago:

Summary of Effects of PA in Chicago Trial after 3 and 6 years End of grade 5 (after 3 years of PA) –8 of 56 measures showed significant improvements –Lots of others with non-significant changes in the right direction –Characterized as “emerging” effects End of grade 8 (after 6 years of PA) –35 of 56 measures showed significant improvements –6 others were marginally significant –No significant effects in the wrong direction –Average effect size of significant differences =.60 = About 73% of students in PA score better than students in C schools This pattern of results argues strongly against findings being by chance. It is also clear that more PA lessons and activities lead to more and larger effects 66

Variables on which PA students outscored C students at Grade 8 Disaffection with Learning Scale Sense of School as a Community Scale Normative Beliefs About Aggression Scale Altruism Scale Aggression Scale Victimization Scale *Frequency of Delinquent Behavior Scale School Attachment Scale Teacher Attachment Scale Belief in Positive Values Belief in Negative Values Rewards for Prosocial Behavior – Parents Rewards for Prosocial Behavior - Teacher CASD - Prosocial Interaction *CASD – Honesty *CASD –Self Control CASD – Respect for teacher & parents CASD – General Character Positive Health Behaviors Scale Positive Health Behaviors - Hygiene Scale Positive Health Behaviors – Food and Exer Affect Scale for Children – Positive Affect Peer self-esteem School self- esteem Student Life Satisfaction Scale SE Formation and Maintenance - Adaptive SE Motivation and Control - Motivation Scale SE Motivation and Control - Control Scale Positive Action/Positive Feelings Scale *Social Problem Solving Aggressive Problem Solving *Competent Social Problem Solving Peer Group Affiliation – Good Friends Scale *Peer Group Affiliation – Bad Friends Scale Inventory of School Climate Scale *Substance Use *Extreme Violence BASC - Depression BASC - Anxiety Scale School attendance Student mobility (between schools) Standardized test scores 67 * Asterisks indicate variables that were significant at grade 5

68 Academic Achievement U.S. Department of Education, What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) SAMHSA/CSAP—National Registry of Evidence-Based Prevention Programs American Institute of Research (AIR) Education Commission of the States for Comprehensive School Reform (ECS) Character U.S. Department of Education, What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) Character Education Partnership (CEP) National Character Education Resource Center (NCERC)/Dr. Marvin Berkowitz, Templeton Foundation The Collaborative for Academic, Social and Emotional Learning (CASEL) Behavior U.S. Department of Education, What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) SAMHSA/CSAP—National Registry of Evidence-Based Prevention Programs (NREPP) Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP), “Best Practice” Program on Disproportionate Minority Best Practice Database National Crime Prevention Council (NCPC) Channing Bete Company—Communities that Care Helping America’s Youth (HAY) Title V Model Programs Guide and Database U.S. Department of Education (SDFS) International Safe Schools/World Health Organization (WHO) PA is Recognized as an Evidence-based Program

69 DECISIONS/INTENTIONS SOCIAL S ITUATION BIOLOGY/ P ERSONALITY REMEMBER THE THEORY OF TRIADIC INFLUENCE!! ATTITUDES TOWARD THE BEHAVIOR CULTURAL E NVIRONMENT SOCIAL NORMATIVE BELIEFS Trial Behavior EXPERIENCES: Expectancies -- Social Reinforcements -- Psychological/Physiological SELF-EFFICACY BEHAVIORAL CONTROL Nurture/CulturalBiological/Nature Intrapersonal StreamSocial/Normative StreamCultural/Attitudinal Stream Distal Influences Proximal Predictors Levels of Causation Ultimate Causes Social/ Personal Nexus Expectancies & Evaluations Affect and Cognitions Decisions Experiences a b c d e f g h i j k m n o p q r s t u v w x Related Behaviors J K C F I B E H A D G