Hybridromas: produce antibodies (B cell) and are long lived (cancer cells) --immortal a long as they are in a suitable environment Molecular biologists need substantial amounts of a single antibody (and that antibody alone). Therefore we need a method to culture a population of B cells derived from a single ancestral B cell, so that this population of B cells would allow us to harvest a single kind of antibody.

Immunization: *Vaccine containing weakened/dead form of the pathogen *Vaccine is injected or ingested *Antibodies are made in response to the antigens from the pathogens *Memory cells are made in response to the antigens *Can last for life or for a very long time *Natural immunity *Active immunity

Benefits: 1. Prevents disease/epidemics (local infections)/ pandemics(worldwide infections) 2. Reduce medical cost (costs are small compared to the cost of treating preventable disease) 3. Vaccinated individual benefits because the full symptoms of the disease doesn’t have to be experienced to gain immunity. 5. Eradicate disease/smallpox entirely 6. Speed up the body’s responses to a disease

Dangers: 1. Many vaccines contain thimerosal *Mercury-based preservative *Neurotoxin that infants/young kids are susceptible 2. Too many vaccines at a young age could “overload” their immune system 3. Anecdotal evidence suggest MMR could be linked to autism. (NO clinical evidence) 4. Some may lead to allergic reaction or autoimmune responses 5. Weakened virus becomes virulent---get disease

Antibody Production with regard to vaccinations *Injection of weakened pathogen into the body = vaccine *Macrophages ingest and present the antigen of the pathogen *T-helper cells bind to macrophages= activates the T-helper cells l *Activated T-helper cells bind to B-cells *Activates B-cells *B-cells undergo mitosis cloning the plasma cells *B-cells begin antibody production *MEMORY CELLS PRODUCED *Second “booster” shot given stimulating memory cells *More antibodies and faster response (SEE GRAPH) *Antibodies are specific to the pathogen antigen