AP Psychology Unit 8: Motivation and Emotion: 8A—Motivation © 2010 by Worth Publishers David G. Myers

Figure 8A.1 Drive-reduction theory Drive-reduction motivation arises from homeostasis—an organism’s natural tendency to maintain a steady internal state. Thus, if we are water deprived, our thirst drives us to drink and to restore the body’s normal state. © 2010 by Worth Publishers

Figure 8A.2 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Once our lower-level needs are met, we are prompted to satisfy our higher-level needs. (From Maslow, 1970.) For survivors of the disastrous 2007 Bangladeshi flood, such as this man carefully carrying his precious load of clean water, satisfying very basic needs for water, food, and safety become top priority. Higher-level needs on Maslow’s hierarchy, such as respect, self-actualization, and meaning, tend to become far less important during such times. © 2010 by Worth Publishers

Figure 8A.3 Monitoring stomach contractions Using this procedure, Washburn showed that stomach contractions (transmitted by the stomach balloon) accompany our feelings of hunger (indicated by a key press). From Cannon, 1929 © 2010 by Worth Publishers

Figure 8A.4 The hypothalamus As we saw in Unit 3B, the hypothalamus (colored red) performs various body maintenance functions, including control of hunger. Blood vessels supply the hypothalamus, enabling it to respond to our current blood chemistry as well as to incoming neural information about the body’s state. © 2010 by Worth Publishers

Figure 8A.5 The appetite hormones Insulin: Secreted by pancreas; controls blood glucose. Leptin: Secreted by fat cells; when abundant, causes brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger. Orexin: Hunger-triggering hormone secreted by hypothalamus. Ghrelin: Secreted by empty stomach; sends “I’m hungry” signals to the brain. Obestatin: Secreted by stomach; sends out “I’m full” signals to the brain. PYY: Digestive tract hormone; sends “I’m not hungry” signals to the brain. © 2010 by Worth Publishers

Figure 8A.6 Hot cultures like hot spices Countries with hot climates, in which food historically spoiled more quickly, feature recipes with more bacteria-inhibiting spices (Sherman & Flaxman, 2001). India averages nearly 10 spices per meat recipe; Finland, 2 spices. © 2010 by Worth Publishers

Figure 8A.7 Levels of analysis for our hunger motivation Clearly, we are biologically driven to eat, yet psychological and social-cultural factors strongly influence what, when, and how much we eat. © 2010 by Worth Publishers

Figure 8A.8 Obesity measured as body mass index (BMI) U.S. government guidelines encourage a BMI under 25. The World Health Organiza-tion and many countries define obesity as a BMI of 30 or more (although muscular bodies may also have a high BMI). The shading in this graph is based on BMI measurements for these heights and weights. BMI is calculated by using the following formula: Weight in kg (pounds ×.45) Squared height in meters (inches ÷ 39.4)2 © 2010 by Worth Publishers = BMI.

Figure 8A.9 Obesity and mortality Relative risk of death among healthy nonsmokers rises with extremely high or low body mass index. Data from 14-year study of 1.05 million Americans, Calle et al., 1999 © 2010 by Worth Publishers

Figure 8A.10 Gender and weight discrimination When women applicants were made to look overweight, university students were less willing to think they would hire them. Among men applicants, weight mattered less. Data from Pingitore et al., 1994 © 2010 by Worth Publishers

Figure 8A.11 Fat cells We store energy in fat cells, which become larger and more numerous if we are obese, and smaller (but still more numerous) if we then lose weight. Adapted from Jules Hirsch, 2003 © 2010 by Worth Publishers

Figure 8A.12 The effects of a severe diet on obese patients’ body weight and metabolism After seven days on a 3500-calorie diet, six obese patients were given only 450 calories a day for the next 24 days. Body weight declined only 6 percent and then leveled off, because metabolism dropped about 15 percent. From Bray, 1969 © 2010 by Worth Publishers

Figure 8A.13 American idle: Couch potatoes beware—TV watching correlates with obesity As life-styles have become more sedentary and TV watching has increased, so has the percentage of overweight people in Britain, North America, and elsewhere. When California children were placed in a TV-reduction educational program, they watched less—and lost weight. Robinson, 1999 © 2010 by Worth Publishers

Figure 8A.14 Levels of analysis for sexual motivation Compared with our motivation for eating, our sexual motivation is less influenced by biological factors. Psychological and social-cultural factors play a bigger role. © 2010 by Worth Publishers

Figure 8A.15 The fraternal birth-order effect Researcher Ray Blanchard (2008) offers these approximate curves depicting a man’s likelihood of homosexuality as a function of his number of older brothers. This correlation has been found in several studies, but only among right-handed men. © 2010 by Worth Publishers

Figure 8A.16 Spatial abilities and sexual orientation Which of the four figures can be rotated to match the target figure at the top? Straight males tend to find this an easier task than do straight females, with gays and lesbians intermediate. From Rahman et al., 2003, with 60 people tested in each group © 2010 by Worth Publishers