11 How we organize the sounds of speech 12 How we use tone of voice 2009 년 1 학기 담당교수 : 홍우평 언어커뮤니케이션의 기 초

Phonetics vs. Phonology Phonetics –the study of how sounds are made, transmitted, and received –source of data: human being with a functioning set of vocal organs; the person’s particular language background is not strictly relevant –the study of all possible speech sounds

Phonetics vs. Phonology Phonology –the study of the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages: sound system (how we find order within the apparent chaos of speech sounds) –to explain the variations that occur –to make statements that apply to all languages –the study of the way in which a language’s speakers systematically use a selection of sounds in order to express meaning

Identifying phonemes Phonological analysis relies on the principle that certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phrase, whereas other sounds do not –pig vs. big, pin vs. pen etc. : minimal pairs test –/p/, /b/, /i/, /e/ … : ‘important units’, being seen as a part of a language = phonemes

Identifying allophones There are also sounds that do not change the meaning when we make a substitution –shoe vs. she: 2 different ‘shapes’ of /∫/, which have nothing to do with meaning change: allophones –cross-linguistic variations: r vs. l in English (read vs. lead) / r vs. l in Korean

Identifying distinctive features We need to recognize smaller units than the individual phonemes, in order to explain how sets of sounds are related –/p/ vs. /b/: 1 distinctive feature –/p/ vs. /g/: 2 distinctive features –/p/ vs. /z/: 3 distinctive features [+voice], [-voice], [+nasal], [-nasal], etc.

Identifying phonological rules telegraph [’teləgra:f]- telegraphy [tə’legrəfi] –microscope – microscopy –blipograph – bliphography A major focus of phonological investigation –to work out the rules which relate sets of words –to see whether all such words in the language followed the rules, or whether there were any exceptions: demonstrate similarities and differences between the sound systems of different langauges

Identifying syllables Syllable –a notion that we intuitively recognize –a unit of sound that is larger than a single segment and usually smaller than a word –it is not always easy to define the number of syllables in a word or to identify where one ends and the next begins: fire, meal, ma-ster? mas-ter? mast-er?

Identifying syllables Syllables are seen as combinations of vowels and consonants –vowels (V): units which can occur on their own, or which appear at the centre of a sequence of sounds –consonants (C): units which cannot occur on their own, or which appear at the edge of a sequence –CV see, CVC hat, CCVC stop, CVCC pots

Identifying syllables In this way the range of syllable types used in a language can be identified and different languages compared –languages which use only V or CV; languages which use several consonants before and after the vowel, etc. –strap,, twelfths, glimpsed –Strand (German), *shtr.. (English)

Identifying syllables The syllable takes its place as an important abstract unit in explaining the way vowels and consonants are organized within a sound system The psychological reality of syllables –slips of the tongue –*feak, *weeble (weak, feeble) / **leak, **keeble (weak, feeble)

Tone of voice Tones of voice –change the meaning of what we say –nonsegmental, suprasegmental features of language - The effects do not apply to individual segments: we use them with words, phrases, whole discourses pitch, loudness, speed, rhythm (prosodic features of language), the amount of silence, timbre

Identifying tones of voice Pitch (intonation) –stating vs. questioning Loudness (stressed, unstressed vs. accented, unaccented) –anger –fine contrast heard on the different syllables: regular, regard, deregulate Tempo –urgency, irritation

Identifying tones of voice Rhythm –Pitch + Loudness + Tempo

How we use tones of voice To express emotion To organize grammar (asking vs. telling) To give shape to words To distinguish word meanings (tone languages: ma in Mandarin Chinese) To draw attention to meaning To characterize a discourse (e.g. radio news)

How we use tones of voice To help us learn To identify individuals