Second Wave of European Conquests 1750–1900 – Not catastrophic like first phase – Affected by Industrial Revolution Europeans preferred informal control (Latin America, China, the Ottoman Empire) – Based on military force or the threat of using, military advantage- organization, drill, and command structure – Firepower advantage

Becoming a colony India and Indonesia- interaction with European trading firms – Many small and rival states after Mughal Africa, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific islands: deliberate conquest – European rivalry 25 years (1875–1900) – Decentralized societies without `formal state structure hardest to conquer Australia /New Zealand like the colonization of North American massive settlement and diseases Taiwan and Korea: Japanese takeover was done European-style United States and Russia continued to expand Liberia: settled by freed U.S. slaves Ethiopia and Siam (Thailand) avoided colonization skillfully

European Rule – Traumatic for the colonized peoples; loss of life and property – Disruption of natural harmonies Cooperation and Rebellion – Some groups cooperated – Employment in the armed forces – Elite kept status and privileges Shortage of European administrators had to rely on them, local princes, emirs and chiefs Studied abroad returned home Granted legal and economic power Governments and missionaries-European education

Rebellions Indian Rebellion (1857–1858) – Mutiny among Indian troops Advocated revival of Mughal Empire 300,00 sepoys/ 30,000 Brits. (Indian soldiers serving Brit.) Became caste based vs. merit Local leaders lost land Unemployed weavers displaced by manf. textiles Animal greased cartridges – Widened India’s racial divide; British less tolerant of natives British government assumed direct control

v Colonial Empires with a Difference Race distinguished rulers from the ruled Education for colonial subjects limited, emphasized practical matters, “primitive minds” – Supported by scientific racism Best-educated natives rarely made it to upper ranks of the civil service Racism –South Africa – Whites attempted to industrialize with cheap African labor, without social and political integration. Established apartheid- separation

Colonial states imposed deep changes- taxes, land distribution, globalized economies In India, appropriated (took) idealized caste system – Kept a small upper caste in power to administer British policy and grow wealthy In Africa, identified or invented distinct “tribes” which were favored/ later to war against each other

Colonial policies contradicted European values/ practices at home – Dictatorships – Antithesis (opposite) of “national independence” – Racial classifications against Christian/ Enlightenment ideas of human equality Colonizers against spreading “modernization” to the colonies

Working: Comparing Colonial Economies Impact on people’s ways of working. World economy demanded Asian/ African raw materials – Subsistence farming diminished – Need to sell goods for money to pay taxes – Desire to buy new products Artisans displaced by manufactured goods Asian and African merchants squeezed out by Europeans

Economies of Coercion: Forced Labor and the Power of the State – Colonial states demanded unpaid labor on public projects 12 days/year Worst abuses Congo Free State -Leopold II of Belgium

“Cultivation system” of the Netherlands East Indies (Indonesia) – Peasants-20 percent of their land to cash crops to pay as taxes – Financed the Dutch economy, Dutch paid no taxes, funded Industrial Revolution in Holland – Enriched the traditional authorities who enforced the system- peasants paid double tax to Holland and local leaders Resistance to forced cultivation of cash crops German East Africa: major rebellion in 1905 against forced cotton cultivation Mozambique: peasant sabotage and smuggling kept the Portuguese from success

Economies of Cash-Crop Agriculture People increased production for world markets – Profit to small farmers in areas – Ghana- African farmers took the initiative to develop export agriculture – Leading supplier of cocoa by 1911 – Created a hybrid peasant-capitalist society Ultimately destroyed the env. with dams, erosion, mangrove destruction/ altered diets Labor shortages -exploitation of former slaves, influx of migrants Colonies specialized in one or two cash crops, creating dependence when world prices dropped

Economies of Wage Labor: Working for Europeans Wage labor in European enterprises common, loss of land, damaged env., work on plantations Low pay, bad conditions, high death rate Millions of Indians migrated to work elsewhere in the British Empire Africa, people moved to European farms/plantations due to loss of land – European communities obtained vast amounts of land – South Africa in 1913: 88 percent of the land belonged to whites – Kenya was taken over by 4,000 white farmers

Former farmers were sent to “native reserves” Mines employed many – Malaysian tin mines attracted Chinese workers, high death rates South African diamond mines pattern of worker migration African miners exploited, short-term contracts, male barracks, forced to see families to prevent new ones nearby Colonial cities attracted workers-centers of opportunity – Segregated, unsanitary, overcrowded – Created class of urban poor

Women and the Colonial Economy: Pre-colonial Africa, women were active farmers, some economic autonomy Colonial economy- men dominated the lucrative export crops Women were left with the subsistence work Men migrated to work elsewhere Women home to work, supplying food to men in the cities – Work doubled for women Colonial economy some opportunities to women – Small trade and marketing-cloths, imported goods, teaching – Women escaped the patriarchy of husbands or fathers Led to greater fear of witchcraft, female autonomy Efforts to restrict female travel and sexuality by African men

Overall economic impact of colonial rule? – Defenders: it jump-started modern growth – Critics: long record of exploitation and limited, uneven growth Colonial rule did help integrate Asian and African economies into global exchange – Process had already been underway in pre colonial times Colonial rule did introduce modernizing elements – Administrative and bureaucratic structures – Communication and transportation infrastructure – Schools – Health care Colonial rule did not lead to breakthroughs to modern industrial societies – India won independence, poorest developing country – British rule did not help overcome poverty

Identity and Cultural Change in the Colonial Era Education Western education created a new identity, magical power of literacy – Escape from forced labor – Access to better jobs – Social mobility and elite status Embraced European culture Created a cultural divide, Elite- path to a better future India, organized reform societies to renew Indian culture – Combined Western ideas and classic Hindu texts – Abolish castes, female discrimination, no idolatry

European education as a tool to win freedom from oppressive tradition – Hopes for renewal disappointed Europeans did not treat their Asian and African subjects as equal partners – Denigrated the colonized cultures

Religion Widespread conversion to Christianity in New Zealand, the Pacific islands, and non- Muslim Africa 10,000 missionaries had gone to Africa by 1910, 1960s, 50 million Africans were Christian Christianity was attractive in Africa – Military defeat shook belief in the old gods – Christianity was associated with modern education/mission schools Christianity gave opportunities to the young, the poor, and many women Christianity was Africanized, syncratism – Continuing use of charms, medicine men Some demonized their old gods Array of “independent churches” established

Christianity did not spread widely in India – It led intellectuals and reformers to define Hinduism – Hindu leaders-spiritual support to the spiritually sick Western world – Colonized but not spiritually beaten – All classes begin to have commonality-Islam and Hinduism New definition of Hinduism separated Muslims as a distinct community – British laws of inheritance differed between the two – Separate councils were established Beginning of a profound religious/political divide

Race” and “Tribe” Notions of race and ethnicity were central to new ways of belonging 1900, some African thinkers began to define an “African identity” – United for the first time by the experience of colonial oppression – African culture and history had the characteristics valued by Europeans (complex political systems, Egypt) C. A. Diop of Senegal argued that black Africans produced ancient Egyptian civilization /European civilization was derived from it and thus from Africa Edward Blyden argued that each race had a distinctive contribution to make to the world – Africa’s contribution was communal, cooperative, and egalitarian societies

20th century, such ideas reached a broader public – Hundreds of thousands of Africans took part in World War I – Africans traveled widely For most Africans, new sense of belonging was the idea of “tribe” or ethnic identity Ethnic groups and borders defined by Europeans Africans found ethnic identity useful – Migrants categorized themselves ethnically – Organized mutual assistance based on ethnicity