Violence and Drugs In Sport SS 271 Jack C. Watson II

Topical Outline Definitions Theories of Aggression Truth about theories of aggression Violence in the US Violence in Athletics Drugs in Sport Topical Review Discussion Questions

Talking about Hockey- “They've dealt with the symptoms of violence, sometimes criminal, with suspensions, without looking at the root causes. And the root causes are that they've not only tolerated but rewarded violence outside the rules. And also condoned a system of vigilantism. ” Bill McMurtry

Definitions Violence : – Physically harming another for the sole purpose of injury. Aggression : – “Any form of behavior directed toward the goal of harming or injuring another living being who is motivated to avoid such treatment.” Aggression is a behavior Involves harm or injury Is directed towards a living organism Involves intent to injure Injury can be physical, cognitive, or psychological

Definitions Continued Hostile Aggression: – Primary goal is to inflict physical or psychological injury on another Instrumental Aggression: – Behavior intended to harm another, for the sake of achieving a goal Assertiveness: – Behavior that is goal directed, within the rules, is not intended to do harm, and is considered as hard work – May or may not result in injury to another

Techniques for Identifying Aggression

Theories of Aggression Instinct Theory – Freud and Lorenz – Aggression is a naturally programmed behavior – Aggression is controlled by creating outlets Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis – Aggression is a response to frustration – We get frustrated when goal directed behavior is interfered with – Aggression is both innate and learned Social Learning Theory – We learn aggression by watching others – We learn aggression by others reactions to our personal behaviors

Truths about Theories of Aggression Instinct Theory: – Aggression is not consistent across all cultures – Aggression is highest during times of war Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis: – Frus. does not always lead to agg. – Agg. is not always precipitated by frus. Social Learning Theory: – Agg. Is highest after viewing aggression – Positive reactions to agg. Increase its occurance

Research Related to Theories of Aggression Violence higher after highly rated boxing Violence greater for contact sport athletes during and after season than for non-athletes, non-contact athletes. Combative sports more popular during times of war. Several cultures do not show aggressive play Bobo doll experiment

History of Violence in US US was born from violence – Take land from natives – Fight for independence – Fight many wars Violence is Common place – Increased crime statistics – 3-6 times more rapes and robberies than other industrialized nations – Found on TV and video games 24.1 acts per hour during the day 7.5 acts per hour during the night By age 18, children see 200,000 violent acts, and 40,000 murders

Violence in Athletics Began in ancient times (boxing, chariots) Rise of off-field violence by athletes (used to be covered-up)(highest is domestic abuse) – 21% of NFL athletes have been indicted or charged – Hazing in sport On field, violence is condoned – Not often punished legally 500 boxers died between In NFL, 2.5 concussions per 1000 plays Borderline Violence – Accepted violence (fights on court) – Teams carry players to promote this – Owners & coaches don’t stop this

Violence in Athletics What promotes violence in athletics? – TV (Media)(preconditioning to violence) – Coaches – Players – Owners (violence sells) – Male Bonding – Steroids Fan Violence – Hooligans – British v. Italy Soccer match (38 killed) – El Salvador v. Honduras (Soccer war”) – Chariot race in ancient Rome, 30,000 people killed Factors Associated with Fan Violence

ISSP Position Stand for Decreasing violence in Sport Recommendation 1: Management should make fundamental penalty revision so that rule-violating behavior results in punishments that have greater punitive value than potential reinforcement. Recommendation 2: Management must ensure proper coaching of teams, particularly at junior levels, which emphasize a fair play code-of-conduct among all participants. Recommendation 3: Management should ban the use of alcoholic beverages at sporting events. Recommendation 4: Management must make sure facilities are adequate regarding catering and spacing needs and the provision of modern amenities. Recommendation 5: The media must place in proper perspective the isolated incidents of aggression that occur in sport, rather than making them “highlights”.

ISSP Position Stand for Decreasing violence in Sport (cont…) Recommendation 6: The media should promote a campaign to decrease violence and hostile aggression in sport which will also involve the participation and commitment of athletes, coaches, management, officials, and spectators. Recommendation 7:Coaches, managers, athletes, media, officials, and authority figures (i.e., police) should take part in workshops on aggression and violence to ensure they understand the topic of aggression, why it occurs, the cost of aggressive acts, and how aggressive behavior can be controlled. Recommendation 8:Coaches, managers, officials, and the media should encourage athletes to engage in prosocial behavior and punish those who perform acts of hostility. Recommendation 9:Athletes should take part in programs aimed at helping them reduce behavioral tendencies toward aggression. The tightening of rules, imposing of harsher penalties and changing of reinforcement patterns are only part of the answer to inhibiting aggression in sport. Ultimately, the athlete must assume responsibility for his/her behavior.

Hazing in Sport What is it? – Hazing, as distinct from but sometimes incorporating bullying and assault, is often an expression of aggression – It is secretive, ritualized "power over" and increasingly sexual in nature – It is against the law in most states, but firmly entrenched in the traditions of most interscholastic and intercollegiate sport teams because administrations and alumni are either firmly in support of it or send mixed signals about it – There is real confusion about what hazing means – Gender may play an important role in how athletic aggression, aggression outside of sport, and hazing are expressed and experienced

Understanding Hazing in Sport We need to look for multifaceted approaches to aggression-related issues that helps us understand and address both the context-specific meanings and expressions of aggression, and the role of friendship group, sport team, institutional, and cultural norms and values for sport-related aggression Anti-hazing (making it illegal, punishing those involved in hazing incidents, etc.) isn't enough. We need to look for the positive motives behind hazing), and find alternative ways to express those motives

Drugs In Sport Prevalence of Performance Enhancement and addictive substances in Athletes (coaches’ perceptions) – Alcohol (88% considered greatest threat to H.S. aths.) – Cocaine (6% considered greatest threat to H.S. aths.) – Marijuana (3% considered greatest threat to H.S. aths.) – Steroids (Football, cycling) – Creatine (legal)

Drugs in Sport Steroid Use – Synthetic derivatives of the male sexual hormone “testosterone” – Anabolic and Androgenic properties – Reported that up to 75% of NFL players have used – 6-10% of male H.S. student, 2% of females – Not always shown to work More than 50% would use drug to win Olympic gold, even if they dies 1 year after doing so.

Drugs in Society War on Drugs for 15+ years 87 million use illegal drugs 3.6 million dependent on drugs We are a pill popping society – Increase world records – Increase contracts – Low chance of getting caught

Common Drugs in Society Steroids Human Growth Horemone Erythroprotein (EPO): red blood cells Androstenedione Creatine (no long term studies, dehyration, GI problems, cramping) Blood Doping Red Bull (smarter, energy, wings) Beta-Blockers

What are Steroids? Androgenic Properties – Affects growth of the male reproductive tract and sex characteristics Enlarged length and diameter of penis Inc. pubic, auxiliary and facial hair Devt. of prostrate and scrotum Anabolic Properties – Affects non-reproductive tracts Inc. Long bone growth Epiphyseal closure Thick vocal chords Muscle mass and strength Dec. body fat Inc. Libido and sexual function Testicular shrinkage Lower testosterone production Liver tumors Personality changes Switch in male and female characteristics

Drugs in Sport Deterrence Model A sport specific modification of the Perceptual Deterrence Theory – Individuals make rational decisions about behavior based upon an appraisal of the costs and benefits of such a behavior. – If costs outweigh benefits, then behavior is not performed (and vise versa)

Drugs in Sport Deterrence Model (cont…) Decision to use banned substances are based upon four main cost sources: – Legal: legal penalties that could incur if caught – Self-imposed: moral beliefs (Best predictor of drug use) – Social: others disapproval of the behavior – Health: negative health of psychological side effects Decisions to use banned substances are based upon three primary benefit sources: – Internalized: sense of satisfaction from achievement and winning – Material: positive material and financial outcomes (salary, money.) – Social: improve others opinions of ones ability

Drugs in Sport Deterrence Model (cont…) Athletes found to be more likely to use performance enhancing drugs to help maintain a fair competitive environment than to gain an advantage over other athletes – Athletes used PE Drugs more to help recover from injury or to catch up to others who are already using substances than to just improve to get better than others on an already level playing field

Topical Review Definitions Theories of Aggression Truth about theories of aggression Violence in the US Violence in Athletics Drugs in Sport

Discussion Questions Should athletes be drug tested? – Is it legal? – Are the tests valid