Chapter 1 The Evolution of Psychology

n Prior to 1879 n Physiology + Philosophy = Psychology n Wilhelm Wundt ( ) University of Leipzig, Germany  Established the first laboratory for the study of psychology in 1879 n Psychology was born Psychology: Birth of a New Science Launch Video

n Leipzig, the place to study psychology n Graduates of Wundt’s program set up new labs across Europe and North America n G.Stanley Hall ( ) Johns Hopkins University  Established the first psychology laboratory in the U.S. in 1883 n Between 1883 and 1893, 24 new laboratories in North America Psychology Goes International

n Two intellectual schools of thought regarding the science of psychology  Structrualism – led by Edward Titchener  Functionalism – led by William James n Structuralists focused on analyzing consciousness into basic elements  Introspection – careful, systematic observations of one’s own conscious experience n Functionalists focused on investigating the function or purpose of consciousness The Battle of the “Schools” in the U.S.: Titchener vs. James

n Most historians give the edge to James and the functionalists n Today, psychologists are not really categorized as structuralists or functionalists n Applied psychology and Behaviorism - descendants of functionalism n Behaviorism - early 1900’s  The next major school of thought to influence the development of psychology Who Won the Battle?

n John B. Watson ( ): United States of America  Founder of Behaviorism Psychology = scientific study of behavior  Behavior = overt or observable responses or activities n Radical reorientation of psychology as a science of observable behavior Behaviorism: Goodbye to Consciousness

n Watson’s famous quote  Nurture, not nature n Behaviorist school of thought emphasized the environment (nurture)  Focus on stimulus-response relationships S-R psychology Doctor, Lawyer, Beggar-man, Thief: Watson and the Nature-Nurture Debate

n Sigmund Freud ( ): Austria  Founded Psychoanalytic school of thought Emphasis on unconscious processes influencing behavior  Unconscious = outside awareness Freud: the Unconscious Mind

n Behavior is influenced by the unconscious n Unconscious conflict related to sexuality plays a central role in behavior  Controversial notions caused debate/resistance Significant influence on the field of psychology Freud’s Ideas: Controversy and Influence

n B.F. Skinner ( ): United States of America n Environmental factors determine behavior  Responses that lead to positive outcomes are repeated  Responses that lead to negative outcomes are not repeated n Beyond Freedom and Dignity  More controversy regarding free will Behaviorism Revisited: B.F. Skinner

n Charges that both were dehumanizing  Diverse opposition groups got together to form a loose alliance Humanism was born Led by Abraham Maslow ( ) and Carl Rogers ( ) n Emphasis on the unique qualities of humans: freedom and personal growth The 1950’s: Opposition to Psychoanalytic Theory and Behaviorism Develops

n Cognition = mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge n 1950’s and 60’s – Piaget, Chomsky, and Simon n Application of scientific methods to studying internal mental events  Cognitive psychology: the new dominant perspective? Putting the Psyche Back in Psychology: The Return of Cognition

Figure 1.3 The relative prominence of three major schools of thought in psychology. To estimate the relative influence of various theoretical orientations in recent decades, Robins, Gosling, and Craik (1999) analyzed the subject matter of four prestigious flagship publications in psychology, measuring the percentage of articles relevant to each school of thought. Obviously, their approach is just one of many ways one might guage the prominence of various theoretical orientations. Nonetheless, the data are thought provoking. They suggest that the cognitive perspective surpassed the behavioral perspective in influence sometime around As you can see, the psychoanalytic perspective has always had a modest impact on the mainstream of psychology. (Adapted from Robins, Gosling, and Craik, 1999)

n James Olds (1956)  Electrical stimulation of the brain evokes emotional responses in animals n Roger Sperry (1981)  Left and right brain specialization n Biological Perspective = behavior explained in terms of physiological processes Biological Psychology: The Biological Basis of Behavior

n Central premise: natural selection occurs for behavioral, as well as physical, characteristics  Buss, Daly & Wilson, Cosmides & Tooby – 80’s and 90’s Studied natural selection of mating preferences, jealousy, aggression, sexual behavior, language, decision making, personality, and development n Thought provoking perspective gaining in influence, but not without criticism Evolutionary Psychology: Functionalism Revisited

n Ethnocentrism – viewing one’s own group as superior and as the standard for judging  Historically: middle and upper class white males studying middle and upper class white males n 1980’s – increased interest in how cultural factors influence behavior  growing global interdependence n increased cultural diversity Contemporary Psychology: Cultural Diversity

n Psychology - the science that studies behavior and the physiological and cognitive processes that underlie it, and it is the profession that applies the accumulated knowledge of this science to practical problems. n Research : Seven major areas (See next slide) n Applied Psychology: Four major areas (See next slide) Psychology Today: A Multifaceted Field

n Themes related to psychology as a field of study:  Psychology is empirical (Theme 1), theoretically diverse (Theme 2), and it evolves in a sociohistorical context (Theme 3). n Themes related to psychology’s subject matter:  Behavior is determined by multiple causes (Theme 4), shaped by cultural heritage (Theme 5), and influenced jointly by heredity and environment (Theme 6).  Finally, people’s experience of the world is highly subjective (Theme 7). Studying Psychology: Seven Organizing Themes

Figure 1.6 Leading college majors. This list shows the ten most popular undergraduate majors in the United States, based on the number of bachelor’s degrees awarded in 1992–1993. As you can see, psychology ranked second only to business administration and management in the number of degrees awarded. (Data from U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1995)

Figure 1.7 Employment of psychologists by setting. The work settings in which psychologists are employed have become quite diverse. Survey data on the primary employment setting of APA members indicate that one-third are in private practice (compared to 12% in 1976) and only 27% work in colleges and universities (compared to 47% in 1976). These data may slightly underestimate the percentage of psychologists in academia, given the new competition between APA and APS to represent research psychologists. (Data based on 1997 APA)

Figure 1.9 Principal professional specialties in contemporary psychology. Most psychologists who deliver professional services to the public specialize in one of the four areas described here. The figures in the pie chart reflect the percentage APA members delivering professional services who identify each area as their chief specialty. (Data based on 1997 APA Directory Survey)