*the scientific method* and *conducting research*

 In its truest form, science is an approach to gaining knowledge.  Psychology- concerned with mental processes and behavior  We must be skeptical psychologists and support our theories through the scientific method.

 A theory- a statement of underlying principles about some aspect of nature Objective observations  Can you think of some commonly held theories? THEORY Conducting research

Name of ProcessDefinitionPurpose Inductive thinkingReasoning goes from specific to general -Ex: My dog barks. Charlie’s dog barks. All dogs must bark. Creates theories Deductive thinkingReasoning from general to specific -Ex: All dogs bark. My dog must bark. Charlie’s dog must bark. Applies theories that are already made

 As humans, we all hold certain expectations of people and/or situations.  Bias- condition(s) that distort data from what chance would have produced 1. Intentional bias- if a study focuses on a single factor, it may pay little attention to other aspects in the study 2. Experimenter bias- researcher can choose certain participants, provide subtle cues, etc. 3. Participant bias- if you know you are part of an experiment, you may act in a specific way; participants may also show placebo effect

 1. Self-awareness  2. Peer review  3. “Tricky” methods that disguise participants’ identities  4. Accounting for the fact that being a part of a study could be affecting behavior in the form of participant bias

 1. Longitudinal studies- study long-term effects of a variable  2. Cross-sectional studies- participants drawn from a random sample of the population and apply them to the entire population  3. Case studies- in-depth studies of one individual  4. Blind/Double-blind studies- participants do not know purpose; participants do not know purpose, while experimenter does not know conditions  5. AB/ABA studies- compares a person’s original behavior to behavior with treatment and then returns to measuring behavior without treatment

 Observations are all around us, but we need to be scientific to test them.  Correlation- a relationship between two different things  Hypothesis- a statement of something a person believes to be true  So, let’s say that I notice that students seem to be more energetic when they serve chicken fingers in the cafeteria, but they are sluggish after encountering the Nacho Bar. My hypothesis might be that students’ energy levels are affected by the lunch options in the cafeteria. How can I test my hypothesis?

 Need a good cross-section of the student body - Males= females; students from all grades; students from all lunch periods  Need a large number of subjects -Difficult to make generalizations from only a few students  Need random selection -No repeat subjects or subjects that know of study’s intention

 Just like in math, a variable in a psychological experiment is anything that can take on different values or quantities.  Independent variable- the factor being studied; the factor that the experimenter manipulates  Dependent variable- behavior that is observed and used for calculations (and eventual analysis)

 Independent variable= type of food served in cafeteria  Dependent variable= energy displayed by students

 The only way to have a valid study is to control the variables.  This means that the environment as well as all any other types of small differences must be the same when manipulating the independent variable.

Chicken fingers served in cafeteria Increase in “energetic” behaviors

 Do you see any problems with this study?  What might they be?  Is there any way to resolve them?

 Scientists are usually aware that it is impossible to create realistic standardized situations. They will even include a discussion of variables that may have interfered with their research at the conclusion of their published studies.  However, there is a special type of variable– a confounding variable– that has the opportunity to destroy results altogether.  Confounding variable- an outside variable related to the independent variable that changes subjects’ behavior

Chicken fingers served in cafeteria Independent variable Chicken fingers served on Friday Confounding variable Students show increase in energy level Dependent variable

 To minimize the dastardly and villainous effects of the confounding variable, you must look deep into connections that not be evident upon first glance.