Three Theories on Bilingualism Cummins’ Approaches

Goals Review theories on bilingualism Apply theories to classroom

Theories Common Underlying Proficiency Threshold Theory Developmental Interdependence Theory

Common Underlying Proficiency Refers to what is commonly known as balance proficiencies, but takes it one step further (Baker, 1997) People theorize that monolinguals have one well-filled balloon and bilinguals have two balloons.

Common Underlying Proficiency Language attributes are not apart in the cognitive system, but transfer readily and are interactive. Lessons learned in one language can readily transfer into the other language.

Common Underlying Proficiency The Iceberg Analogy L1 Surface Features L2 Surface Features Surface Level Common Underlying Proficiency Central Operating System

Common Underlying Proficiency Separate Underlying Proficiency (SUP) VS Common Underlying Proficiency (CUP)

Common Underlying Proficiency Parts The thoughts that accompany talking, reading, writing and listening come from the same central engine. There is on integrated source of thought. People have the capacity to store easily many languages, and can also function in many languages with ease. Information processing skills and educational attainment may be developed through two languages. Cognitive functioning and school achievement may be fed through any channel, they feed from the same central processor

Common Underlying Proficiency The language used in the classroom needs to be sufficiently well developed to be able to process the cognitive challenges in the classroom. Speaking, listening, reading or writing any of the languages helps the whole cognitive system to develop. However, if made to operate in an insufficiently developed language, the system will not function at its best. Operating in a poorly developed L2, will result in poor quality and quantity of what they learn in complex curriculum materials. Oral and written form may appear weak and impoverished.

Common Underlying Proficiency When one or both languages are not functioning fully cognitive functioning and academic performance may be negatively affected. Not functioning fully because of unfavorable attitude to learning through the second language, pressure to replace the home language with the majority language.

Thresholds Theory The further the child moves toward balanced bilingualism, the greater the likelihood of cognitive advantages. There are two thresholds or levels of language competence that has consequences for a child. Limits which children will be likely to obtain cognitive benefits from bilingualism. Suggests that there are children who may derive detrimental consequences from their bilingualism. Under what conditions does bilingualism have positive, neutral and negative effects? How far does someone have to travel up the two language laddrs to obtain cognitive advantages from bilingualism

Thresholds Theory First threshold is level to reach to avoid negative consequences of bilingualism. Second threshold is a level required to experience the possible benefits of bilingualism.

Thresholds Theory Balanced Bilinguals Second Threshold Less Balanced Bilinguals First Threshold Limited Bilinguals L2 L1

Thresholds Theory Balanced Bilinguals Less Balanced Bilinguals Age-appropriate competence in both languages Positive cognitive advantages Less Balanced Bilinguals Age-appropriate competence in one language Unlikely positive or negative advantages Limited Biinguals Low levels of competence in both languages Likely negative cognitive consequences

What are cognitive consequences Coping with curriculum materials Processing information Deductive reasoning Metalinguistic awareness (analysis of linguistic knowledge and control of linguistic processing)

Problems with theory Defining level of language proficiency necessary to avoid negative effects obtain positive advantages

Developmental Interdependence Hypothesis Suggests that child’s second language competence is partly dependent on the level of competence already achieved in the first language The more developed the first language, the easier it will be to develop a second language When the first language is at a low stage of evolution, the more difficult the achievement of bilingualism will be.

Language skills required for education Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) Context embedded Comprehension Speaking Pronunciation Vocabulary Grammar Cognitive/Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) Context reduced Analysis Synthesis Meanings Creative Compositions

BICS/CALP Conversational Proficiency Cognitive Processes Knowledge Comprehension Application Language Proficiency Pronunciation Vocabulary Grammar Surface Analysis Synthesis Evaluation Semantic Meaning Functional Meaning Cognitive/Academic Proficiency

Limitations Different dimensions to language Moving from one dimension requires evolving, dynamic, interacting and intricate, not a dichotomy Lack of empirical support, difficult to operationalize Terms BICS and CALP may oversimplify Relationship between language development and cognitive development is not simple. Other factors affect them.

BICS/CALP Helps explain child failure in the schools. Cognitive Undemanding Quadrant 1 Quadrant 2 Context Embedded Communication Context Reduced Communication Quadrant 3 Quadrant 4 Cognitively Demanding Comm

BICS/CALP Two Dimensions Amount of contextual support available to a student Context embedded Communication Pointing to objects Using the eyes Head nods Hand gestures Intonation Context reduced communication Few cues to meaning transmitted

BICS/CALP Two Dimensions 2. Level of cognitive demands required in communication Cognitive demanding communication Much information at a challenging level needs processing quickly Cognitive undemanding communication Person has the mastery of languages skills sufficient to enable easy communication.

Quadrants Q1 Surface fluency or basic interpersonal communication skills – BICS L2 Develops independently from L1 surface fluency Q4 Language that is cognitive and academically more advanced – CALP Develops interdependent and can be promoted by either or both languages

Length of time to develop CALP BICS

Curriculum Relevance I Page 156

Curriculum Relevance II Page 157

Curriculum Relevance III Page 158