Borrowing: Anything Goes, But Within Limits Dik Bakker Lancaster University

Constraints on Borrowing2 Between languages, anything may be borrowed (Thomason & Kaufmann 1988; Campbell 1989; Thomason 2001; …) BUT …

Constraints on Borrowing3 Between languages, anything may be borrowed (Thomason & Kaufmann 1988; Campbell 1989; Thomason 2001; …) BUT … Typological differences between source language and target language put quantitative (and qualitative?) constraints on what may be borrowed (cf. Bakker, Hekking & Gómez 2008)

Constraints on Borrowing4 Contact + Change Language 1

Constraints on Borrowing5 Contact + Change Language 2 Language 1

Constraints on Borrowing6 Contact + Change Language 2 Language 1

Constraints on Borrowing7 Contact + Change Language 2 Language 1

Constraints on Borrowing8 Contact + Change Language 2 (Urdu: Indo-Aryan) Language 1 (Kannada: Dravidian) Kupwar, Southern India

Constraints on Borrowing9 Contact + Change Language 2 Language 1 (majority, status, power, education, …)

Constraints on Borrowing10 Contact + Change Language 2 Language 1

Constraints on Borrowing11 Contact + Change Language 2 (Minority languages) Language 1 (Mandarin)

Constraints on Borrowing12 Contact + Change Target Language Source Language

Constraints on Borrowing13 Contact + Change Target Language Source Language English Many languages of the world

Constraints on Borrowing14 Contact + Change Target Language Source Language English - + Many languages of the world

Constraints on Borrowing15 Contact + Change Target Language Source Language English Minimum change (mainly words) - + Many languages of the world

Constraints on Borrowing16 Contact + Change Target Language Source Language Spanish Quichua (Ec) - +

Constraints on Borrowing17 Contact + Change Maximum change (relexification) Target Language Source Language Spanish - + Quichua (Ec)

Constraints on Borrowing18 Contact + Change Maximum change (relexification) Target Language Source Language Spanish - + Quichua (Ec)  ‘Media Lengua’

Constraints on Borrowing19 Contact + Change Minimum Maximum Target Language Source Language Lexical borrowing + Structural adaptation - +

Constraints on Borrowing20 Contact + Change Minimum Maximum Target Language Source Language MOTIVATION: Socio-linguistic situation - + Lexical borrowing + Structural adaptation

Constraints on Borrowing21 Contact + Change Minimum Maximum Target Language Source Language MOTIVATION: Socio-linguistic situation CONSTRAINTS: Typology of TL and SL - + Lexical borrowing + Structural adaptation

Constraints on Borrowing22 Contact + Change PROTO SinoTibetan: S O V Rel N

Constraints on Borrowing23 Contact + Change PROTO SinoTibetan: S O V Rel N PROTO Sinitic: S V O Rel N

Constraints on Borrowing24 Contact + Change PROTO SinoTibetan: S O V Rel N PROTO Sinitic: S V O Rel N

Constraints on Borrowing25 Contact + Change PROTO SinoTibetan: S O V Rel N PROTO Sinitic: S V O Rel N

Constraints on Borrowing26 Contact + Change Mandarin: S V O Adj N Rel N Prep N PROTO SinoTibetan: S O V Rel N PROTO Sinitic: S V O Rel N

Constraints on Borrowing27 Contact + Change Mandarin: S V O Adj N Rel N Prep N PROTO SinoTibetan: S O V Rel N PROTO Sinitic: S V O Rel N

Constraints on Borrowing28 Contact + Change Mandarin: S V O Adj N Rel N Prep N PROTO SinoTibetan: S O V Rel N PROTO Sinitic: S V O Rel N

Constraints on Borrowing29 Contact + Change Mandarin: S V O Adj N Rel N Prep N PROTO SinoTibetan: S O V Rel N PROTO Sinitic: S V O Rel N Co-verb + N OBJ ‘geĭtā’ give her

Constraints on Borrowing30 Contact + Change Mandarin: S V O Adj N Rel N Prep N PROTO SinoTibetan: S O V Rel N PROTO Sinitic: S V O Rel N Co-verb + N ‘geĭtā’ to her

Constraints on Borrowing31 Contact + Change Mandarin: S V O Adj N Rel N Prep N PROTO SinoTibetan: S O V Rel N PROTO Sinitic: S V O Rel N Co-verb + N

Constraints on Borrowing32 Contact + Change Mandarin: S V O Adj N Rel N  N Rel ? Prep N PROTO SinoTibetan: S O V Rel N PROTO Sinitic: S V O Rel N Co-verb + N

Constraints on Borrowing33 Contact + Change Mandarin: S V O Adj N Rel N  N Rel ? Prep N PROTO SinoTibetan: S O V Rel N PROTO Sin: S V O Rel N Co-verb + N ALTAIC (Mongol): S O V Adj N Rel N N Post

Constraints on Borrowing34 Contact + Change Mandarin: S V O Adj N Rel N  N Rel ? Prep N PROTO SinoTibetan: S O V Rel N PROTO Sin: S V O Rel N Co-verb + N ALTAIC (Mongol): S O V Adj N Rel N N Post

Constraints on Borrowing35 Contact + Change Mandarin: S V O Adj N Rel N Prep NN Post PROTO SinoTibetan: S O V Rel N PROTO Sin: S V O Rel N Co-verb + N ALTAIC (Mongol): S O V Adj N Rel N N Post

Constraints on Borrowing36 Typological evidence

Constraints on Borrowing37 Typological evidence SVO Prep+++

Constraints on Borrowing38 Typological evidence SVOSOV Prep+++ Post+++

Constraints on Borrowing39 Typological evidence SVOSOV Prep+++ + Post + +++

Constraints on Borrowing40 WALS Atlas Haspelmath, M., M. Dryer,D. Gil & B. Comrie (eds) (2005). The World Atlas Of Language Structures. Oxford: Oxford University Press WALS Online: Online:

Constraints on Borrowing41 Typological data WALS:

Constraints on Borrowing42 Typological data WALS: 140 linguistic variables (phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon, …)

Constraints on Borrowing43 Typological data WALS: 140 linguistic variables (phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon, …) Per variable: map with distribution of values

Constraints on Borrowing44 Basic order vs Adposition type

Constraints on Borrowing45 92% of VO languages Basic order vs Adposition type

Constraints on Borrowing46 Basic order vs Adposition type 8% of VO languages

Constraints on Borrowing47 Basic order vs Adposition type 98% of OV languages

Constraints on Borrowing48 Basic order vs Adposition type 2% of OV languages

Constraints on Borrowing49 Basic order vs Adposition type

Constraints on Borrowing50 Contact + Change Minimum Maximum Target Language Source Language - Lexical borrowing + - Structural adaptation

Constraints on Borrowing51 Contact + Change Minimum Maximum Target Language Source Language MOTIVATION: Socio-linguistic situation CONSTRAINTS: Typology of TL and SL - Lexical borrowing + - Structural adaptation

Constraints on Borrowing52 Overview

Constraints on Borrowing53 1. Method Overview

Constraints on Borrowing54 1. Method 2. Hypotheses Overview

Constraints on Borrowing55 1. Method 2. Hypotheses 3. Languages Overview

Constraints on Borrowing56 1. Method 2. Hypotheses 3. Languages 4. Data Overview

Constraints on Borrowing57 1. Method 2. Hypotheses 3. Languages 4. Data 5. Analysis Overview

Constraints on Borrowing58 1. Method 2. Hypotheses 3. Languages 4. Data 5. Analysis 6. Conclusion Overview

1.Method

Constraints on Borrowing60 Method 1. Borrowing versus shift-induced interference

Constraints on Borrowing61 Method 1. Borrowing versus shift-induced interference Immigrant languages (e.g. Urdu in England; Turkish in The Netherlands): impoverished

Constraints on Borrowing62 Method 1. Borrowing versus shift-induced interference -Target language is first/only language of informant

Constraints on Borrowing63 Method 1. Borrowing versus shift-induced interference -Target language is first/only language -Target language is dominant in community

Constraints on Borrowing64 Method 1. Borrowing versus shift-induced interference -Target language is first language of informant -Target language is dominant in community -Distribution of borrowings among informants

Constraints on Borrowing65 Method 1. Borrowing versus shift-induced interference -Target language is first language of informant -Target language is dominant in community -Distribution of borrowings among informants -Exclude code switches

Constraints on Borrowing66 Method 1.Borrowing versus shift-induced interference 2. One Source Language (‘controlled’)

Constraints on Borrowing67 Method 1.Borrowing versus shift-induced interference 2. One Source Language - Spanish only source language

Constraints on Borrowing68 Method 1. Borrowing versus shift-induced interference 2. One source language 3. Variety among Target Languages

Constraints on Borrowing69 Method 1. Borrowing versus shift-induced interference 2. One source language 3. Variety among Target Languages - Different genetic affiliation (=language family)

Constraints on Borrowing70 Method 1. Borrowing versus shift-induced interference 2. One source language 3. Variety among Target Languages - Different genetic affiliation - Typological differences, e.g. Word Order, Adposition type, Morphological type etc.

Constraints on Borrowing71 Method 1. Borrowing versus shift-induced interference 2. One source language 3. Typological variety among target languages 4. More than one dialect per Target Language

Constraints on Borrowing72 Method 1. Borrowing versus shift-induced interference 2. One source language 3. Typological variety among target languages 4. More than one dialect per target language 5. Socio-cultural aspects optimally constant

Constraints on Borrowing73 Method 1. Borrowing versus shift-induced interference 2. One source language 3. Typological variety among target languages 4. More than one dialect per target language 5. Socio-cultural aspects optimally constant - Latin America (?)

Constraints on Borrowing74 Method 1. Borrowing versus shift-induced interference 2. One source language 3. Typological variety among target languages 4. More than one dialect per target language 5. Socio-cultural aspects optimally constant 6. Spoken data from a representative group

Constraints on Borrowing75 Method 1. Borrowing versus shift-induced interference … 6. Spoken data from a representative group - Recordings of spontaneous speech

Constraints on Borrowing76 Method 1. Borrowing versus shift-induced interference … 6. Spoken data from a representative group - Differentiation in: Age Education Gender Profession Mobility …

Constraints on Borrowing77 Method 1. Borrowing versus shift-induced interference … 6. Spoken data from a representative group - Differentiation in: Age Education Gender > informants … Profession Mobility …

Constraints on Borrowing78 Method 1. Borrowing versus shift-induced interference 2. One source language 3. Typological variety among target languages 4. More than one dialect per target language 5. Socio-cultural aspects optimally constant 6. Spoken data from a representative group 7. Look at diachronic stages

Constraints on Borrowing79 Method 1. Borrowing versus shift-induced interference Look at diachronic stages - e.g. dictionaries and grammars written by missionaries

Constraints on Borrowing80 Method 1. Borrowing versus shift-induced interference 2. One source language 3. Typological variety among target languages 4. More than one dialect per target language 5. Socio-cultural aspects optimally constant 6. Spoken data from a representative group 7. Look at diachronic stages 8. Hypotheses concerning borrowing

Constraints on Borrowing81 Method 1. Borrowing versus shift-induced interference … 8. Hypotheses concerning borrowing - Universals from Language Typology (Greenberg; Moravcsik; but: Campbell 1989)

Constraints on Borrowing82 Method 1. Borrowing versus shift-induced interference … 8. Hypotheses concerning borrowing - Universals from Language Typology (Greenberg; Moravcsik; but: Campbell 1989) - Borrowing scale (Thomason 2001)

Constraints on Borrowing83 Method 1. Borrowing versus shift-induced interference 2. One source language 3. Typological variety among target languages 4. More than one dialect per target language 5. Socio-cultural aspects optimally constant 6. Spoken data from a representative group 7. Look at diachronic stages 8. Hypotheses concerning borrowing 9. Explanation: the role of theories

Constraints on Borrowing84 Method 1. Borrowing versus shift-induced interference … 9. Explanation: the role of theories - Functional Grammar (FG; Dik 1997)  Parts of speech theory

2. Hypotheses

Constraints on Borrowing86 General Hypotheses

Constraints on Borrowing87 General Hypotheses 1. Pragmatically marked > unmarked ‘>’ means: is borrowed easier than...

Constraints on Borrowing88 Specific Hypothesis 1. Pragmatically marked > unmarked 1.a Discourse marker > Case marker

Constraints on Borrowing89 Specific Hypothesis 1. Pragmatically marked > unmarked 1.a Discourse marker > Case marker ‘pues, …’

Constraints on Borrowing90 General Hypotheses 1. Pragmatically marked > unmarked 2. Open Class > Closed Class

Constraints on Borrowing91 Specific Hypothesis 1. Pragmatically marked > unmarked 2. Open Class > Closed Class 2.a N > V > A > Adv (~ Thomason’s scale)

Constraints on Borrowing92 General Hypotheses 1. Pragmatically marked > unmarked 2. Open Class > Closed Class 3. Lexical > Grammatical

Constraints on Borrowing93 Specific Hypothesis 1. Pragmatically marked > unmarked 2. Open Class > Closed Class 3. Lexical > Grammatical 3.a Noun > Preposition

Constraints on Borrowing94 Specific Hypothesis 1. Pragmatically marked > unmarked 2. Open Class > Closed Class 3. Lexical > Grammatical 3.a Noun > Preposition 3.b Prep > Aux > Article

Constraints on Borrowing95 General Hypotheses 1. Pragmatically marked > unmarked 2. Open Class > Closed Class 3. Lexical > Grammatical 4. Free > Bound

Constraints on Borrowing96 Specific Hypothesis 1. Pragmatically marked > unmarked 2. Open Class > Closed Class 3. Lexical > Grammatical 4. Free > Bound 4.a Adpos (Prep, Post) > Case suffix

Constraints on Borrowing97 General Hypotheses 1. Pragmatically marked > unmarked 2. Open Class > Closed Class 3. Lexical > Grammatical 4. Free > Bound 5. Borrowed with subcategorization

Constraints on Borrowing98 Specific Hypothesis 1. Pragmatically marked > unmarked 2. Open Class > Closed Class 3. Lexical > Grammatical 4. Free > Bound 5. Borrowed with subcategorization 5.a No Preposition in Postpositional language, no Postposition in Prepositional language

3. The languages

Constraints on Borrowing100 Languages 1. Otomí

Constraints on Borrowing101 Languages 1. Otomí Oto-Mangue (Querétaro, Mexico)

Constraints on Borrowing102

Constraints on Borrowing103 Languages 1. Otomí Oto-Mangue (Querétaro, Mexico) 9 dialects, speakers

Constraints on Borrowing104 Languages 1. Otomí Oto-Mangue (Querétaro, Mexico) 9 dialects, speakers SVO/flexible

Constraints on Borrowing105 Languages 1. Otomí Oto-Mangue (Querétaro, Mexico) 9 dialects, speakers SVO/flexible No adpositions

Constraints on Borrowing106 Languages 1. Otomí Oto-Mangue (Querétaro, Mexico) 9 dialects, speakers SVO/flexible No adpositions Definite article

Constraints on Borrowing107 Languages 1. Otomí Oto-Mangue (Querétaro, Mexico) 9 dialects, speakers SVO/flexible No adpositions Definite article Rigid: only V | N, no A

Constraints on Borrowing108 Languages (1)d-arnduxte PRES.1-DET.SGbad ‘I am bad’ (> I am the bad one = N )

Constraints on Borrowing109 Languages (1)d-arnduxte PRES.1-DET.SGbad ‘I am bad’ (> I am the bad one = N ) (2)di dathi PRES.1ill ‘I am ill’ (> I am illing = V intrans )

Constraints on Borrowing110 Languages (1)d-arnduxte PRES.1-DET.SGbad ‘I am bad’ (> I am the bad one = N ) (2)di dathi PRES.1ill ‘I am ill’ (> I am illing = V intrans ) (3)xi nts’ut’i-gi PERF.3 slim-1.OBJ ‘I am slim’ (> It has slimmed me = V trans )

Constraints on Borrowing111 Languages 2. Quechua

Constraints on Borrowing112 Languages 2. Quechua Andean

Constraints on Borrowing113

Constraints on Borrowing114 Languages 2. Quechua Andean (our variety from Ecuador)

Constraints on Borrowing115 Languages 2. Quechua Andean (Ecuador) 45 dialects/languages: 4.5 million Peru 2.5 million Bolivia 1.5 million Ecuador Argentina+Chile

Constraints on Borrowing116 Languages 2. Quechua Andean (Ecuador) 45 varieties, 8.5 million speakers SOV

Constraints on Borrowing117 Languages 2. Quechua Andean (Ecuador) 45 varieties, 8.5 million speakers SOV Postpositional

Constraints on Borrowing118 Languages 2. Quechua Andean (Ecuador) 45 varieties, 8.5 million speakers SOV Postpositional No articles

Constraints on Borrowing119 Languages 2. Quechua Andean (Ecuador) 45 varieties, 8.5 million speakers SOV Postpositional No articles Flexible: V | N ~ A

Constraints on Borrowing120 Languages (4)rika-sha-ka:hatun-ta see-PAST-1SGbig-ACC ‘I saw the big one’ ( > = N )

Constraints on Borrowing121 Languages (4)rika-sha-ka:hatun-ta see-PAST-1SGbig-ACC ‘I saw the big one’ ( > = N ) (5)chayhatunruna DEMbigman ‘that big man’ ( > = A )

Constraints on Borrowing122 Languages 3. Guaraní

Constraints on Borrowing123 Languages 3. Guaraní Tupi (Paraguay)

Constraints on Borrowing124

Constraints on Borrowing125 Languages 3. Guaraní Tupi (Paraguay: official language! )

Constraints on Borrowing126 Languages 3. Guaraní Tupi (Paraguay) Several dialects, speakers

Constraints on Borrowing127 Languages 3. Guaraní Tupi (Paraguay) Several dialects, speakers SVO

Constraints on Borrowing128 Languages 3. Guaraní Tupi (Paraguay) Several dialects, speakers SVO Postpositional

Constraints on Borrowing129 Languages 3. Guaraní Tupi (Paraguay) Several dialects, speakers SVO Postpositional No articles

Constraints on Borrowing130 Languages 3. Guaraní Tupi (Paraguay) Several dialects, speakers SVO Postpositional No articles Flexible: V | N ~ A

Constraints on Borrowing131 Languages (6)che-vy’á ne-recha-rehe 1SG.POSS-happy2.ACC-see-of ‘I am happy to see you’ (> my happiness of seeing you; > = N )

Constraints on Borrowing132 Languages (6)che-vy’á ne-recha-rehe 1SG.POSS-happy2.ACC-see-of ‘I am happy to see you’ (> my happiness of seeing you; = N ) (7)a-vy’á ne-recha-vo 1SG-happy2.ACC-see-when ‘I am happy to see you’ ( > happy me when I see you; = A )

Constraints on Borrowing133 Languages Source: Spanish

Constraints on Borrowing134 Languages Source: Spanish Indo-European (Spain; Latin America; USA; …)

Constraints on Borrowing135

Constraints on Borrowing136

Constraints on Borrowing137 Languages Source: Spanish Indo-European (Spain; LatAm; USA; etc) Many dialects, > speakers

Constraints on Borrowing138 Languages Source: Spanish Indo-European (Spain; LatAm; USA; etc) Many dialects, > speakers SVO

Constraints on Borrowing139 Languages Source: Spanish Indo-European (Spain; LatAm; USA; etc) Many dialects, > speakers SVO Prepositional

Constraints on Borrowing140 Languages Source: Spanish Indo-European (Spain; LatAm; USA; etc) Many dialects, > speakers SVO Prepositional Def and Indef articles

Constraints on Borrowing141 Languages Source: Spanish Indo-European (Spain; LatAm; USA; etc) Many dialects, > speakers SVO Prepositional Def and Indef articles Complex verbal morphology

Constraints on Borrowing142 Languages (8)andarto walk ando I walk andasyou walk andahe walks andamoswe walk andaboI was walking andé I walked andemay I walk andieraI might walk estoy andandoI am walking he andadoI have walked

Constraints on Borrowing143 Languages (8)andarto walk ando I walk andasyou walk andahe walks andamoswe walk andaboI was walking andé I walked andemay I walk andieraI might walk estoy andandoI am walking he andadoI have walked

Constraints on Borrowing144 Languages (8)andarto walk ando I walk andasyou walk andahe walks andamoswe walk andaboI was walking andé I walked andemay I walk andieraI might walk estoy andandoI am walking he andadoI have walked

Constraints on Borrowing145 Languages Source: Spanish Indo-European (Spain; LatAm; USA; etc) Many dialects, > speakers SVO Prepositional Def and Indef articles Complex verbal morphology Specialized: V | N | A

Constraints on Borrowing146 Languages (9)montaña (N) mountain

Constraints on Borrowing147 Languages (9)montaña (N)montañoso (A) mountainmountainous

Constraints on Borrowing148 Languages (9)montaña (N)montañoso (A) mountainmountainous (10)rico (A) rich

Constraints on Borrowing149 Languages (9)montaña (N)montañoso (A) mountainmountainous (10)rico (A)riqueza (N) richrichness

Constraints on Borrowing150 Languages ParameterSPANISH Word OrderSVO AdpositionPrep ArticlesDef N + Indef N Part of SpeechV / N / A

Constraints on Borrowing151 Languages ParameterSPANISHOTOMI Word OrderSVOSVO/free AdpositionPrep- ArticlesDef N + Indef N Def N Part of SpeechV / N / AV / N

Constraints on Borrowing152 Languages ParameterSPANISHOTOMIGUARANI Word OrderSVOSVO/freeSVO AdpositionPrep-Post ArticlesDef N + Indef N Def N- Part of SpeechV / N / AV / NV / N+A

Constraints on Borrowing153 Languages ParameterSPANISHOTOMIGUARANIQUECHUA Word OrderSVOSVO/freeSVOSOV AdpositionPrep-Post ArticlesDef N + Indef N Def N-- Part of SpeechV / N / AV / NV / N+A

4. Data

Constraints on Borrowing155 Data collected Respondents: Dialects: Tokens:

Constraints on Borrowing156 Data collected Otomí Respondents:59 Dialects:2 Tokens:110,540

Constraints on Borrowing157 Data collected OtomíQuechua Respondents:5938 Dialects:22 Tokens:110,54079,718

Constraints on Borrowing158 Data collected OtomíQuechuaGuaraní Respondents: Dialects:22 2 Tokens:110,54079,718 57,828

Constraints on Borrowing159 Data collected OtomíQuechuaGuaraní Respondents: Dialects:22 2 Tokens:110,54079,718 57,828

Constraints on Borrowing160 Entrevista corregida (marzo 2004) Entrevistada: Juana Juárez Pérez (44) … Entrevistador: Oswaldo Chaparro - Ar bätsi kät’ar txuku, ar txuku kät’ar sapo o jar xito ne ‘bonduwar xayu. -Ar sapo bí boxu jar xito. -Ner bätsi bí ‘ñähä... ähwar txuku ne ‘bonduwa ya thiza ne ‘bonduwar xayu. -Ner bätsi ya bí nangi kor txuku ne ‘bonduwar xayu ne ‘butuwar xito ne bí boxár sapo ne ‘bonduwa ya bota. -Ar... ar bätsi hongar sapo... k’ät... ya ‘bunu ár bota ner txuku bí fot’ár ñä jar xito... ne ar bätsi ya bí nangi... ya bí nangi... ne nör txuku xi fotár ñä jar xito. - El... el niño está viendo (-) el perro, el perro está viendo (-) el... el sapo, su camisa está tirado en el suelo. -El... el niño está dormido con su perro y su camisa está tirado ahí. El sapo ya salió (-) la botella. -El niño ya se despiertó con su perro. Y el... su camisa está tirado ahí. -El niño está buscando (-) su... su sapo. El perro se metió la cabeza en la botella. -El perro se metió su cabeza en el... la botella y el niño está gritando. -El... el... el perro se cayó. El niño está somando la ventana. Example data structure

Constraints on Borrowing161 Entrevista corregida (marzo 2004) Entrevistada: Juana Juárez Pérez (44) … Entrevistador: Oswaldo Chaparro - Ar bätsi kät’ar txuku, ar txuku kät’ar sapo o jar xito ne ‘bonduwar xayu. -Ar sapo bí boxu jar xito. -Ner bätsi bí ‘ñähä... ähwar txuku ne ‘bonduwa ya thiza ne ‘bonduwar xayu. -Ner bätsi ya bí nangi kor txuku ne ‘bonduwar xayu ne ‘butuwar xito ne bí boxár sapo ne ‘bonduwa ya bota. -Ar... ar bätsi hongar sapo... k’ät... ya ‘bunu ár bota ner txuku bí fot’ár ñä jar xito... ne ar bätsi ya bí nangi... ya bí nangi... ne nör txuku xi fotár ñä jar xito. - El... el niño está viendo (-) el perro, el perro está viendo (-) el... el sapo, su camisa está tirado en el suelo. -El... el niño está dormido con su perro y su camisa está tirado ahí. El sapo ya salió (-) la botella. -El niño ya se despiertó con su perro. Y el... su camisa está tirado ahí. -El niño está buscando (-) su... su sapo. El perro se metió la cabeza en la botella. -El perro se metió su cabeza en el... la botella y el niño está gritando. -El... el... el perro se cayó. El niño está somando la ventana. Example data structure

Constraints on Borrowing162 Entrevista corregida (marzo 2004) Entrevistada: Juana Juárez Pérez (44) … Entrevistador: Oswaldo Chaparro - Ar bätsi kät’ar txuku, ar txuku kät’ar sapo o jar xito ne ‘bonduwar xayu. -Ar sapo bí boxu jar xito. -Ner bätsi bí ‘ñähä... ähwar txuku ne ‘bonduwa ya thiza ne ‘bonduwar xayu. -Ner bätsi ya bí nangi kor txuku ne ‘bonduwar xayu ne ‘butuwar xito ne bí boxár sapo ne ‘bonduwa ya bota. -Ar... ar bätsi hongar sapo... k’ät... ya ‘bunu ár bota ner txuku bí fot’ár ñä jar xito... ne ar bätsi ya bí nangi... ya bí nangi... ne nör txuku xi fotár ñä jar xito. - El... el niño está viendo (-) el perro, el perro está viendo (-) el... el sapo, su camisa está tirado en el suelo. -El... el niño está dormido con su perro y su camisa está tirado ahí. El sapo ya salió (-) la botella. -El niño ya se despiertó con su perro. Y el... su camisa está tirado ahí. -El niño está buscando (-) su... su sapo. El perro se metió la cabeza en la botella. -El perro se metió su cabeza en el... la botella y el niño está gritando. -El... el... el perro se cayó. El niño está somando la ventana. Example data structure

Constraints on Borrowing163 Entrevista corregida (marzo 2004) Entrevistada: Juana Juárez Pérez (44) … Entrevistador: Oswaldo Chaparro - Ar bätsi kät’ar txuku, ar txuku kät’ar sapo o jar xito ne ‘bonduwar xayu. -Ar sapo bí boxu jar xito. -Ner bätsi bí ‘ñähä... ähwar txuku ne ‘bonduwa ya thiza ne ‘bonduwar xayu. -Ner bätsi ya bí nangi kor txuku ne ‘bonduwar xayu ne ‘butuwar xito ne bí boxár sapo ne ‘bonduwa ya bota. -Ar... ar bätsi hongar sapo... k’ät... ya ‘bunu ár bota ner txuku bí fot’ár ñä jar xito... ne ar bätsi ya bí nangi... ya bí nangi... ne nör txuku xi fotár ñä jar xito. - El... el niño está viendo (-) el perro, el perro está viendo (-) el... el sapo, su camisa está tirado en el suelo. -El... el niño está dormido con su perro y su camisa está tirado ahí. El sapo ya salió (-) la botella. -El niño ya se despiertó con su perro. Y el... su camisa está tirado ahí. -El niño está buscando (-) su... su sapo. El perro se metió la cabeza en la botella. -El perro se metió su cabeza en el... la botella y el niño está gritando. -El... el... el perro se cayó. El niño está somando la ventana. Example data structure

Constraints on Borrowing164 Entrevista corregida (marzo 2004) Entrevistada: Juana Juárez Pérez (44) … Entrevistador: Oswaldo Chaparro - Ar bätsi kät’ar txuku, ar txuku kät’ar sapo o jar xito ne ‘bonduwar xayu. -Ar sapo bí boxu jar xito. -Ner bätsi bí ‘ñähä... ähwar txuku ne ‘bonduwa ya thiza ne ‘bonduwar xayu. -Ner bätsi ya bí nangi kor txuku ne ‘bonduwar xayu ne ‘butuwar xito ne bí boxár sapo ne ‘bonduwa ya bota. -Ar... ar bätsi hongar sapo... k’ät... ya ‘bunu ár bota ner txuku bí fot’ár ñä jar xito... ne ar bätsi ya bí nangi... ya bí nangi... ne nör txuku xi fotár ñä jar xito. - El... el niño está viendo (-) el perro, el perro está viendo (-) el... el sapo, su camisa está tirado en el suelo. -El... el niño está dormido con su perro y su camisa está tirado ahí. El sapo ya salió (-) la botella. -El niño ya se despiertó con su perro. Y el... su camisa está tirado ahí. -El niño está buscando (-) su... su sapo. El perro se metió la cabeza en la botella. -El perro se metió su cabeza en el... la botella y el niño está gritando. -El... el... el perro se cayó. El niño está somando la ventana. Example data structure

Constraints on Borrowing165 Entrevista corregida (marzo 2004) Entrevistada: Juana Juárez Pérez (44) … Entrevistador: Oswaldo Chaparro - Ar bätsi kät’ar txuku, ar txuku kät’ar sapo o jar xito ne ‘bonduwar xayu. -Ar sapo bí boxu jar xito. -Ner bätsi bí ‘ñähä... ähwar txuku ne ‘bonduwa ya thiza ne ‘bonduwar xayu. -Ner bätsi ya bí nangi kor txuku ne ‘bonduwar xayu ne ‘butuwar xito ne bí boxár sapo ne ‘bonduwa ya bota. -Ar... ar bätsi hongar sapo... k’ät... ya ‘bunu ár bota ner txuku bí fot’ár ñä jar xito... ne ar bätsi ya bí nangi... ya bí nangi... ne nör txuku xi fotár ñä jar xito. - El... el niño está viendo (-) el perro, el perro está viendo (-) el... el sapo, su camisa está tirado en el suelo. -El... el niño está dormido con su perro y su camisa está tirado ahí. El sapo ya salió (-) la botella. -El niño ya se despiertó con su perro. Y el... su camisa está tirado ahí. -El niño está buscando (-) su... su sapo. El perro se metió la cabeza en la botella. -El perro se metió su cabeza en el... la botella y el niño está gritando. -El... el... el perro se cayó. El niño está somando la ventana. Example data structure

Constraints on Borrowing166 Entrevista corregida (marzo 2004) Entrevistada: Juana Juárez Pérez (44) … Entrevistador: Oswaldo Chaparro - Ar bätsi kät’ar txuku, ar txuku kät’ar sapo o jar xito ne ‘bonduwar xayu. -Ar sapo bí boxu jar xito. -Ner bätsi bí ‘ñähä... ähwar txuku ne ‘bonduwa ya thiza ne ‘bonduwar xayu. -Ner bätsi ya bí nangi kor txuku ne ‘bonduwar xayu ne ‘butuwar xito ne bí boxár sapo ne ‘bonduwa ya bota. -Ar... ar bätsi hongar sapo... k’ät... ya ‘bunu ár bota ner txuku bí fot’ár ñä jar xito... ne ar bätsi ya bí nangi... ya bí nangi... ne nör txuku xi fotár ñä jar xito. - El... el niño está viendo (-) el perro, el perro está viendo (-) el... el sapo, su camisa está tirado en el suelo. -El... el niño está dormido con su perro y su camisa está tirado ahí. El sapo ya salió (-) la botella. -El niño ya se despiertó con su perro. Y el... su camisa está tirado ahí. -El niño está buscando (-) su... su sapo. El perro se metió la cabeza en la botella. -El perro se metió su cabeza en el... la botella y el niño está gritando. -El... el... el perro se cayó. El niño está somando la ventana. Example data structure

Constraints on Borrowing167 Data collected Spanish collected to assess:

Constraints on Borrowing168 Data collected Spanish collected to assess: 1. Level of bilingualism (individual; group)

Constraints on Borrowing169 Data collected Spanish collected to assess: 1. Level of bilingualism 2. Influence of Target language on Source language

Constraints on Borrowing170 Data collected Spanish collected to assess: 1. Level of bilingualism 2. Influence of Target language on Source language 3. Study the local variety of Source language

Constraints on Borrowing171 Entrevista corregida (marzo 2004) Entrevistada: Juana Juárez Pérez (44) … Entrevistador: Oswaldo Chaparro - Ar bätsi kät’ar txuku, ar txuku kät’ar sapo o jar xito ne ‘bonduwar xayu. -Ar sapo bí boxu jar xito. -Ner bätsi bí ‘ñähä... ähwar txuku ne ‘bonduwa ya thiza ne ‘bonduwar xayu. -Ner bätsi ya bí nangi kor txuku ne ‘bonduwar xayu ne ‘butuwar xito ne bí boxár sapo ne ‘bonduwa ya bota. -Ar... ar bätsi hongar sapo... k’ät... ya ‘bunu ár bota ner txuku bí fot’ár ñä jar xito... ne ar bätsi ya bí nangi... ya bí nangi... ne nör txuku xi fotár ñä jar xito. - Example data structure

Constraints on Borrowing172 Digitalized data structure Informant: Simon Eleuterio Lucio (SEL) Target: Otomí Source: Spanish Ne nör 'yo mi hongu ja ya... ja /kolmenäN-HR/. Bí kaku jar... jar ñö /kongPR/ar... /kongPR/ar 'yo. yo mi... mi hongu jar /fraskoN-HR/.

Constraints on Borrowing173 Digitalized data structure Informant: Simon Eleuterio Lucio (SEL) Target: Otomí Source: Spanish Ne nör 'yo mi hongu ja ya... ja /kolmenäN-HR/. Bí kaku jar... jar ñö /kongPR/ar... /kongPR/ar 'yo. yo mi... mi hongu jar /fraskoN-HR/.

Constraints on Borrowing174 Digitalized data structure Informant: Simon Eleuterio Lucio (SEL) Target: Otomí Source: Spanish Ne nör 'yo mi hongu ja ya... ja /kolmenäN-HR/. Bí kaku jar... jar ñö /kongPR/ar... /kongPR/ar 'yo. yo mi... mi hongu jar /fraskoN-HR/. Part of Speech Spanish

Constraints on Borrowing175 Digitalized data structure Informant: Simon Eleuterio Lucio (SEL) Target: Otomí Source: Spanish Ne nör 'yo mi hongu ja ya... ja /kolmenäN-HR/. Bí kaku jar... jar ñö /kongPR/ar... /kongPR/ar 'yo. yo mi... mi hongu jar /fraskoN-HR/. Part of Speech Spanish Function Otomi

5. Analysis

Constraints on Borrowing177 Borrowings: overall (tokens) QuechuaGuaraníOtomí Mimimum4.0%5.7%6.7% Maximum27.0%28.5%26.0% Mean18.9%17.4%14.1% SD

Constraints on Borrowing178 Borrowings: overall (tokens) QuechuaGuaraníOtomí Mimimum4.0%5.7%6.7% Maximum27.0%28.5%26.0% Mean 18.9% 17.4%14.1% SD

Constraints on Borrowing179 Borrowings: overall (tokens) QuechuaGuaraníOtomí Mimimum4.0%5.7%6.7% Maximum27.0%28.5%26.0% Mean 18.9%17.4% 14.1% SD

Constraints on Borrowing180 Borrowings: overall (tokens) QuechuaGuaraníOtomí Mimimum4.0%5.7%6.7% Maximum27.0%28.5%26.0% Mean 18.9%17.4%14.1% SD

Constraints on Borrowing181 Borrowings: overall (tokens) QuechuaGuaraníOtomí Mimimum4.0%5.7%6.7% Maximum27.0%28.5%26.0% Mean 18.9%17.4%14.1% SD Significant at 0.5%

Constraints on Borrowing182 Borrowing Process Quechua > Guaraní > Otomí

Constraints on Borrowing183 Borrowing Process Quechua > Guaraní > Otomí In line with: -relative length of contact history

Constraints on Borrowing184 Borrowing Process Quechua > Guaraní > Otomí In line with: -relative length of contact history -sociolinguistic situation

Constraints on Borrowing185 Borrowing Process Quechua > Guaraní > Otomí In line with: -relative length of contact history -sociolinguistic situation -amount of bilingualism

Constraints on Borrowing186 Borrowings: major PoS QuechuaGuaraníOtomí N 54.4%37.2%40.7% V 17.7%18.3%4.8% A 8.5%7.4%1.9% Total80.6%62.7%47.4% Absolute Percentages (Tokens) Que > Gua > Oto

Constraints on Borrowing187 Borrowings: major PoS QuechuaGuaraníOtomí N54.4%37.2%40.7% V17.7%18.3%4.8% A8.5%7.4%1.9% Total80.6%62.7%47.4% Absolute Percentages (Tokens) Que > Gua > Oto

Constraints on Borrowing188 Borrowings: major PoS QuechuaGuaraníOtomí N54.4%37.2% 40.7% V17.7%18.3%4.8% A8.5%7.4%1.9% Total80.6%62.7%47.4% Absolute Percentages > Que > Gua > Oto

Constraints on Borrowing189 Borrowings: major PoS QuechuaGuaraníOtomí N54.4%37.2% 40.7% V17.7%18.3% 4.8% A8.5%7.4% 1.9% > ~ ~ Absolute Percentages Que > Gua > Oto

Constraints on Borrowing190 Borrowings: major PoS QuechuaGuaraníOtomí N 54.4% 37.2%40.7% V17.7%18.3%4.8% A8.5%7.4%1.9% ~ Absolute Percentages Que > Gua > Oto

Constraints on Borrowing191 Borrowings: major PoS QuechuaGuaraníOtomí N 54.4% 37.2%40.7% V17.7%18.3%4.8% A8.5%7.4% > ~ Absolute Percentages 1.9% > Que > Gua > Oto

Constraints on Borrowing192 Borrowing Scenario (1 st attempt)

Constraints on Borrowing193 Borrowing Scenario (1 st attempt) Stage n (Oto): mainly N (open ++), few V/A

Constraints on Borrowing194 Borrowing Scenario (1 st attempt) Stage n (Oto): mainly N (open ++), few V/A Stage n+1 (Gua): more V & A (open +)

Constraints on Borrowing195 Borrowing Scenario (1 st attempt) Stage n (Oto): mainly N (open ++), few V/A Stage n+1 (Gua): more V & A (open +) Stage n+2 (Que): more N (open ++)

Constraints on Borrowing196 Specific Hypothesis Open Class > Closed Class 2.a N > V > A

Constraints on Borrowing197 Borrowings: major PoS QuechuaGuaraníOtomí N 54.4%37.2%40.7% V17.7% 18.3%4.8% A8.5% 7.4% > ~ Absolute Percentages 1.9% > < ~ ~

Constraints on Borrowing198 Borrowings: major PoS QuechuaGuaraníOtomí N 54.4%37.2%40.7% V 17.7% 18.3%4.8% A 8.5% 7.4% > ~ Absolute Percentages 1.9% > Semantic Competition: V A N BUT: < ~ ~

Constraints on Borrowing199 Borrowings: major PoS Absolute Percentages Relative Percentages QuechuaGuaraníOtomí N 54.4%37.2%40.7% V 17.7% 18.3%4.8% A 8.5% 7.4% < > > 1.9% ~

Constraints on Borrowing200 Borrowings: major PoS PoSQUEGUAOTO N54%37%41% V18% 5% A9%7%2% TOT81%62%47% Absolute

Constraints on Borrowing201 Borrowings: major PoS PoSQUEGUAOTOQUEGUAOTO N54%37%41%68%59%86% V18% 5%22%29%10% A9%7%2%11%12%4% TOT81%62%47%100% AbsoluteRelative

Constraints on Borrowing202 Borrowings: major PoS PoSQUEGUAOTOQUEGUAOTO N54%37% 41% 68%59% 86% V 18% 5%22%29%10% A 9%7%2%11%12%4% TOT 81%62%47%100% AbsoluteRelative > > =

Constraints on Borrowing203 Borrowings: major PoS PoSQUEGUAOTOQUEGUAOTO N 54% 37%41%68%59%86% V 18% 5%22%29%10% A 9%7%2%11%12%4% TOT 81%62%47%100% AbsoluteRelative < ~ #

Constraints on Borrowing204 Borrowings: major PoS PoSQUEGUAOTOQUEGUAOTO N 54%37%41%68%59%86% V18% 5% 22%29% 10% A 9%7%2%11%12%4% TOT 81%62%47%100% AbsoluteRelative <~ #

Constraints on Borrowing205 Borrowings: major PoS PoSQUEGUAOTOQUEGUAOTO N 54%37%41%68%59%86% V18% 5%22%29%10% A9%7%2%11%12%4% TOT 81%62%47%100% AbsoluteRelative > > > > =

Constraints on Borrowing206 Borrowing Scenario (2 nd attempt) Quechua > Guaraní > Otomí:

Constraints on Borrowing207 Borrowing Scenario (2 nd attempt) Quechua > Guaraní > Otomí: Borrowing of Nouns:

Constraints on Borrowing208 Borrowing Scenario (2 nd attempt) Quechua > Guaraní > Otomí: Borrowing of Nouns: - referential ( ~ objects > concrete )

Constraints on Borrowing209 Borrowing Scenario (2 nd attempt) Quechua > Guaraní > Otomí: Borrowing of Nouns: - referential - syntactically relatively independent: easy access

Constraints on Borrowing210 Borrowing Scenario (2 nd attempt) Quechua > Guaraní > Otomí: Borrowing of Nouns: - referential - syntactically relatively independent - first category borrowed: most open {Oto >> Que,Gua}

Constraints on Borrowing211 Borrowings: major PoS PoSQUEGUAOTOQUEGUAOTO N 54% 37%41%68%59%86% V 18% 5%22%29%10% A 9%7%2%11%12%4% TOT 81%62%47%100% AbsoluteRelative < ~ #

Constraints on Borrowing212 Borrowing Scenario (2 nd attempt) Quechua > Guaraní > Otomí: Borrowing of Nouns: - referential - syntactically relatively independent - first category borrowed: most open {Oto >> Que,Gua} - borrowing never stops {Que > Gua}

Constraints on Borrowing213 Borrowings: major PoS PoSQUEGUAOTOQUEGUAOTO N54%37% 41% 68%59% 86% V 18% 5%22%29%10% A 9%7%2%11%12%4% TOT 81%62%47%100% AbsoluteRelative > > =

Constraints on Borrowing214 Borrowing Scenario (2 nd attempt) Quechua > Guaraní > Otomí: Borrowing of Nouns: - referential - syntactically relatively independent - first category borrowed: most open {Oto >> Que,Gua} - borrowing never stops {Que > Gua} Borrowing of Verbs:

Constraints on Borrowing215 Borrowing Scenario (2 nd attempt) Quechua > Guaraní > Otomí: Borrowing of Nouns: - referential - syntactically relatively independent - first category borrowed: most open {Oto >> Que,Gua} - borrowing never stops {Que > Gua} Borrowing of Verbs: - sem / synt / morph complex (SPANISH!): less accessible

Constraints on Borrowing216 Languages (8)andarto walk ando I walk andasyou walk andahe walks andamoswe walk andaboI was walking andé I walked andemay I walk andieraI might walk estoy andandoI am walking he andadoI have walked

Constraints on Borrowing217 Borrowing Scenario (2 nd attempt) Quechua > Guaraní > Otomí: Borrowing of Nouns: - referential - syntactically relatively independent - first category borrowed: most open {Oto >> Que,Gua} - borrowing never stops {Que > Gua} Borrowing of Verbs: - sem / synt / morph complex - easier when in same syntactic position {Gua (SVO=Spa) > Que (SOV#Spa)}

Constraints on Borrowing218 Borrowings: major PoS PoSQUEGUAOTOQUEGUAOTO N 54%37%41%68%59%86% V18% 5% 22%29% 10% A 9%7%2%11%12%4% TOT 81%62%47%100% AbsoluteRelative <~ #

Constraints on Borrowing219 Borrowing Scenario (2 nd attempt) Quechua > Guaraní > Otomí: Borrowing of Nouns: - referential - syntactically relatively independent - first category borrowed: most open {Oto >> Que,Gua} - borrowing never stops {Que > Gua} Borrowing of Verbs: - sem / synt / morph complex - easier when in same syntactic position {Gua > Que} Borrowing of Adjectives:

Constraints on Borrowing220 Borrowing Scenario (2 nd attempt) Quechua > Guaraní > Otomí: Borrowing of Nouns: - referential - syntactically relatively independent - first category borrowed: most open {Oto >> Que,Gua} - borrowing never stops {Que > Gua} Borrowing of Verbs: - sem / synt / morph complex - easier when in same syntactic position {Gua > Que} Borrowing of Adjectives: - optional, unlike V/N

Constraints on Borrowing221 Borrowing Scenario (2 nd attempt) Quechua > Guaraní > Otomí: Borrowing of Nouns: - referential - syntactically relatively independent - first category borrowed: most open {Oto >> Que,Gua} - borrowing never stops {Que > Gua} Borrowing of Verbs: - sem / synt / morph complex - easier when in same syntactic position {Gua > Que} Borrowing of Adjectives: - optional, unlike V/N - depends on PoS type:

Constraints on Borrowing222 Borrowing Scenario (2 nd attempt) Quechua > Guaraní > Otomí: Borrowing of Nouns: - referential - syntactically relatively independent - first category borrowed: most open {Oto >> Que,Gua} - borrowing never stops {Que > Gua} Borrowing of Verbs: - sem / synt / morph complex - easier when in same syntactic position {Gua > Que} Borrowing of Adjectives: - optional, unlike V/N - Que,Gua: flexible (V | N ~ Adj)

Constraints on Borrowing223 Borrowing Scenario (2 nd attempt) Quechua > Guaraní > Otomí: Borrowing of Nouns: - referential - syntactically relatively independent - first category borrowed: most open {Oto >> Que,Gua} - borrowing never stops {Que > Gua} Borrowing of Verbs: - sem / synt / morph complex - easier when in same syntactic position {Gua > Que} Borrowing of Adjectives: - optional, unlike V/N - Que,Gua: flexible (V | N ~ Adj) Oto: rigid ( V | N, no Adj)

Constraints on Borrowing224 Borrowing Scenario (2 nd attempt) Quechua > Guaraní > Otomí: Borrowing of Nouns: - referential - syntactically relatively independent - first category borrowed: most open {Oto >> Que,Gua} - borrowing never stops {Que > Gua} Borrowing of Verbs: - sem / synt / morph complex - easier when in same syntactic position {Gua > Que} Borrowing of Adjectives: - optional, unlike V/N - Que,Gua: flexible (V | N ~ Adj) Oto: rigid ( V | N, no Adj) {Que,Gua >> Oto}

Constraints on Borrowing225 Borrowings: major PoS PoSQUEGUAOTOQUEGUAOTO N 54%37%41%68%59%86% V18% 5%22%29%10% A9%7%2%11%12%4% TOT 81%62%47%100% AbsoluteRelative > > > > =

Constraints on Borrowing226 Borrowings: major PoS Scenario I (length of contact) Better Explanation Scenario II (typological differences) +

Constraints on Borrowing227 Borrowings: grammatical

Constraints on Borrowing228 Borrowings: lex vs gram QuechuaGuaraníOtomí LEXICAL84.0%65.3%51.9% GRAMMATICAL16.0%34.7%48.1% > >

Constraints on Borrowing229 Borrowings: lex vs gram QuechuaGuaraníOtomí LEXICAL84.0%65.3%51.9% GRAMMATICAL 16.0%34.7%48.1% ? >> <<

Constraints on Borrowing230 Borrowings: grammatical QuechuaGuaraníOtomí Adpos0.5% 21.2% Art0.0%19.4%0.0% DisMrk0.6%0.8%6.5% Subj1.6%4.6%6.1% … ……… N.B. ABSOLUTE: no competition

Constraints on Borrowing231 Borrowings: grammatical QuechuaGuaraníOtomí Adpos0.5% 21.2% Art0.0%19.4%0.0% DisMrk0.6%0.8%6.5% Subord1.6%4.6%6.1% … ……… N.B. ABSOLUTE

Constraints on Borrowing232 Borrowings: grammatical QuechuaGuaraníOtomí Adpos0.5% 21.2% Art0.0% 19.4% 0.0% DisMrk0.6%0.8%6.5% Subord1.6%4.6%6.1% … ……… N.B. ABSOLUTE

Constraints on Borrowing233 Borrowings: grammatical QuechuaGuaraníOtomí Adpos0.5% 21.2% Art0.0%19.4%0.0% DisMrk0.6%0.8% 6.5% Subord1.6%4.6%6.1% … ……… N.B. ABSOLUTE

Constraints on Borrowing234 Borrowings: grammatical QuechuaGuaraníOtomí Adpos0.5% 21.2% Art0.0%19.4%0.0% DisMrk0.6%0.8%6.5% Subord1.6%4.6% 6.1% … ……… N.B. ABSOLUTE

Constraints on Borrowing235 Borrowings: grammatical QuechuaGuaraníOtomí Adpos0.5% 21.2% Art0.0% 19.4% 0.0% DisMrk0.6%0.8%6.5% Subj1.6%4.6%6.1% … ……… N.B. ABSOLUTE

Constraints on Borrowing236 Borrowings: grammatical I QuechuaGuaraníOtomí Adpos ( = PREP) 0.5% 21.2% Art0.0%19.4%0.0% DsMrk0.6%0.8%6.5% Subj1.6%4.6%6.1% Conj6.9%4.4%7.5% ALL INFORMANTS

Constraints on Borrowing237 Borrowings: grammatical I QuechuaGuaraníOtomí Adpos ( = PREP) 0.5% 21.2% Art0.0%19.4%0.0% DsMrk0.6%0.8%6.5% Subj1.6%4.6%6.1% Conj6.9%4.4%7.5% ALL INFORMANTS

Constraints on Borrowing238 Borrowings: grammatical I QuechuaGuaraníOtomí Adpos ( = PREP) 0.5% 21.2% Art0.0%19.4%0.0% DsMrk0.6%0.8%6.5% Subj1.6%4.6%6.1% Conj6.9%4.4%7.5% Otomí:

Constraints on Borrowing239 Borrowings: grammatical I QuechuaGuaraníOtomí Adpos ( = PREP) 0.5% 21.2% Art0.0%19.4%0.0% DsMrk0.6%0.8%6.5% Subj1.6%4.6%6.1% Conj6.9%4.4%7.5% Otomí: - no adpos (prep; post)

Constraints on Borrowing240 Borrowings: grammatical I QuechuaGuaraníOtomí Adpos ( = PREP) 0.5% 21.2% Art0.0%19.4%0.0% DsMrk0.6%0.8%6.5% Subj1.6%4.6%6.1% Conj6.9%4.4%7.5% Otomí: - no adpos - no other way of case marking

Constraints on Borrowing241 Borrowings: grammatical I QuechuaGuaraníOtomí Adpos ( = PREP) 0.5% 21.2% Art0.0%19.4%0.0% DsMrk0.6%0.8%6.5% Subj1.6%4.6%6.1% Conj6.9%4.4%7.5% Otomí: - no adpos - no case markers - but: prenominal adverbs

Constraints on Borrowing242 Borrowings: grammatical I QuechuaGuaraníOtomí Adpos ( = PREP) 0.5% 21.2% Art0.0%19.4%0.0% DsMrk0.6%0.8%6.5% Subj1.6%4.6%6.1% Conj6.9%4.4%7.5% Otomí: - no adpos - no case markers Function & Syntax: but: prenominal adverbs

Constraints on Borrowing243 Borrowings: grammatical I QuechuaGuaraníOtomí Adpos ( = PREP) 0.5% 21.2% Art0.0%19.4%0.0% DsMrk0.6%0.8%6.5% Subj1.6%4.6%6.1% Conj6.9%4.4%7.5% Otomí: - no adpos - no case markers Function & Syntax: but: prenominal adverbs Guaraní, Quechua:

Constraints on Borrowing244 Borrowings: grammatical I QuechuaGuaraníOtomí Adpos ( = PREP) 0.5% 21.2% Art0.0%19.4%0.0% DsMrk0.6%0.8%6.5% Subj1.6%4.6%6.1% Conj6.9%4.4%7.5% Otomí: - no adpos - no case markers Function & Syntax: but: prenominal adverbs Guaraní, Quechua: - postpositions / case markers (Que)

Constraints on Borrowing245 Borrowings: grammatical I QuechuaGuaraníOtomí Adpos ( = PREP) 0.5% 21.2% Art0.0%19.4%0.0% DsMrk0.6%0.8%6.5% Subj1.6%4.6%6.1% Conj6.9%4.4%7.5% Otomí: - no adpos - no case markers Function & Syntax: but: prenominal adverbs Guaraní, Quechua: - Postpositions / case(Que) Function & Syntax: (-) -

Constraints on Borrowing246 Borrowings: grammatical II QuechuaGuaraníOtomí Adpos0.5% 21.2% Art0.0% 19.4% 0.0% DsMrk0.6%0.8%6.5% Subj1.6%4.6%6.1% Conj6.9%4.4%7.5% ALL INFORMANTS

Constraints on Borrowing247 Borrowings: grammatical II QuechuaGuaraníOtomí Adpos0.5% 21.2% Art 0.0%19.4%0.0% DsMrk0.6%0.8%6.5% Subj1.6%4.6%6.1% Conj6.9%4.4%7.5% ALL INFORMANTS

Constraints on Borrowing248 Borrowings: grammatical II QuechuaGuaraníOtomí Adpos0.5% 21.2% Art0.0% 19.4% 0.0% DsMrk0.6%0.8%6.5% Subj1.6%4.6%6.1% Conj6.9%4.4%7.5% ‘la’ ART(+fem)1764 nsp=37 (of 38)  SG

Constraints on Borrowing249 Borrowings: grammatical II QuechuaGuaraníOtomí Adpos0.5% 21.2% Art0.0% 19.4% 0.0% DsMrk0.6%0.8%6.5% Subj1.6%4.6%6.1% Conj6.9%4.4%7.5% ‘la’ ART(+fem)1764 nsp=37 (of 38)  SG ‘lo’ ART(+pl) 157 nsp=19  PL

Constraints on Borrowing250 Borrowings: grammatical II QuechuaGuaraníOtomí Adpos0.5% 21.2% Art0.0% 19.4% 0.0% DsMrk0.6%0.8%6.5% Subj1.6%4.6%6.1% Conj6.9%4.4%7.5% Otomí =has DefArt

Constraints on Borrowing251 Borrowings: grammatical II QuechuaGuaraníOtomí Adpos0.5% 21.2% Art0.0% 19.4% 0.0% DsMrk0.6%0.8%6.5% Subj1.6%4.6%6.1% Conj6.9%4.4%7.5% Otomí =has DefArt Guaraní =no Art

Constraints on Borrowing252 Borrowings: grammatical II QuechuaGuaraníOtomí Adpos0.5% 21.2% Art0.0% 19.4% 0.0% DsMrk0.6%0.8%6.5% Subj1.6%4.6%6.1% Conj6.9%4.4%7.5% Otomí =has DefArt Guaraní =no Art Quechua =no Art

Constraints on Borrowing253 Borrowings: grammatical II QuechuaGuaraníOtomí Adpos0.5% 21.2% Art 0.0%19.4% 0.0% DsMrk0.6%0.8%6.5% Subj1.6%4.6%6.1% Conj6.9%4.4%7.5% Otomí =has Art Guaraní =no Art Quechua =no Art ?

Constraints on Borrowing254 Borrowings: grammatical II QuechuaGuaraníOtomí Adpos0.5% 21.2% Art0.0% 19.4% 0.0% DsMrk0.6%0.8%6.5% Subj1.6%4.6%6.1% Conj6.9%4.4%7.5% Function in Guarani: ‘la’ and ‘lo’ typically used as demonstrative, not definiteness marker

Constraints on Borrowing255 Borrowings: grammatical II QuechuaGuaraníOtomí Adpos0.5% 21.2% Art0.0% 19.4% 0.0% DsMrk0.6%0.8%6.5% Subj1.6%4.6%6.1% Conj6.9%4.4%7.5% Function in Guarani: ‘la’ and ‘lo’ typically used as demonstrative, not definiteness marker  Topic marker (none in Gua; exists in Que: ‘-ka’ )

Constraints on Borrowing256 Borrowings: lex vs gram QuechuaGuaraníOtomí LEXICAL84.0%65.3%51.9% GRAMMATICAL 16.0%34.7%48.1% ? >> <<

Constraints on Borrowing257 Borrowings: lex vs gram QuechuaGuaraníOtomí LEXICAL84.0%65.3%51.9% GRAMMATICAL 16.0%34.7% % >> Subtract ART (= topic marker) FG: in grammar, bypassing lexicon

Constraints on Borrowing258 Borrowings: lex vs gram QuechuaGuaraníOtomí LEXICAL84.0%65.3%51.9% GRAMMATICAL 16.0%34.7% % >> Subtract ART (= topic marker) FG: in grammar, bypassing lexicon Adpos  lexical (~ADV), not grammatical

Constraints on Borrowing259 Borrowings: lex vs gram QuechuaGuaraníOtomí LEXICAL84.0% % % 73.1 GRAMMATICAL16.0% % % 26.9 >>

Constraints on Borrowing260 Borrowings: lex vs gram QuechuaGuaraníOtomí LEXICAL84.0% % % 73.1 GRAMMATICAL16.0% % % 26.9 >> << ?

Constraints on Borrowing261 Borrowings: lex vs gram QuechuaGuaraníOtomí LEXICAL GRAMMATICAL >> lexical Unlimited: large, open categories ?

Constraints on Borrowing262 Borrowings: lex vs gram QuechuaGuaraníOtomí LEXICAL GRAMMATICAL >> lexical Limit: Complete relexification (100%) Media Lengua; Creoles; … ?

Constraints on Borrowing263 Borrowings: lex vs gram QuechuaGuaraníOtomí LEXICAL GRAMMATICAL >> lexical Unlimited: large, open categories grammatical Limited: small, closed categories ?

Constraints on Borrowing264 Borrowings: lex vs gram QuechuaGuaraníOtomí LEXICAL GRAMMATICAL >> lexical Unlimited: large, open categories grammatical Limited: small, closed categories Relative ‘overrepresentation’ early on !

Constraints on Borrowing265 Stability across dialects

Constraints on Borrowing266 Stability across dialects QUECHUA: IMBABURA (Ecuador) BOLIVAR (Peru)

Constraints on Borrowing267 Stability across dialects GUARANI: CITY (Asunción) RURAL (several villages) QUECHUA: IMBABURA BOLIVAR

Constraints on Borrowing268 Stability across dialects OTOMI: SANTIAGO TOLIMAN GUARANI: CITY RURAL QUECHUA: IMBABURA BOLIVAR

Constraints on Borrowing269 Que.I – Que.BGua.C – Gua.ROto.S – Oto.T N54%: 56 – 4737%: 34 – 4741%: 40 – 42 V18%: 19 – 1218%: 17 – 21 5%: 4 – 5 A 9%: 9 – 10 8%: %: 2 – 2 Adpos 1%: 1 – 1 1%: 1 – 021%: 18 – 26 DefArt 0%: 0 – 019%: 23 – 12 0%: 0 – 0 Stability across dialects

Constraints on Borrowing270 QI - QBGC - GROS – OT N54%: 56 – 47 37%: 34 – 4741%: 40 – 42 V18%: 19 – 1218%: 17 – 21 5%: 4 – 5 A 9%: 9 – 10 8%: %: 2 – 2 Adpos 1%: 1 – 1 1%: 1 – 021%: 18 – 26 DefArt 0%: 0 – 019%: 23 – 12 0%: 0 – 0 > Stability across dialects

Constraints on Borrowing271 QI - QBGC - GROS – OT N54%: 56 – 4737%: 34 – 4741%: 40 – 42 V 18%: 19 – 1218%: 17 – 21 5%: 4 – 5 A 9%: 9 – 10 8%: %: 2 – 2 Adpos 1%: 1 – 1 1%: 1 – 021%: 18 – 26 DefArt 0%: 0 – 019%: 23 – 12 0%: 0 – 0 > Stability across dialects

Constraints on Borrowing272 QI - QBGC - GROS – OT N54%: 56 – 4737%: 34 – 4741%: 40 – 42 V18%: 19 – 1218%: 17 – 21 5%: 4 – 5 A 9%: 9 – 10 8%: %: 2 – 2 Adpos 1%: 1 – 1 1%: 1 – 021%: 18 – 26 DefArt 0%: 0 – 019%: 23 – 12 0%: 0 – 0 > Stability across dialects

Constraints on Borrowing273 QI - QBGC - GROS – OT N54%: 56 – 4737%: 34 – 4741%: 40 – 42 V18%: 19 – 1218%: 17 – 21 5%: 4 – 5 A 9%: 9 – 10 8%: %: 2 – 2 Adpos 1%: 1 – 1 1%: 1 – 0 21%: 18 – 26 DefArt 0%: 0 – 019%: 23 – 12 0%: 0 – 0 < Stability across dialects

Constraints on Borrowing274 QI - QBGC - GROS – OT N54%: 56 – 4737%: 34 – 4741%: 40 – 42 V18%: 19 – 1218%: 17 – 21 5%: 4 – 5 A 9%: 9 – 10 8%: %: 2 – 2 Adpos 1%: 1 – 1 1%: 1 – 021%: 18 – 26 DefArt 0%: 0 – 0 19%: 23 – 12 0%: 0 – 0 > < Stability across dialects

6. Conclusion

Constraints on Borrowing276 Specific Hypotheses

Constraints on Borrowing277 Specific Hypotheses 1. Discourse marker > Case marker

Constraints on Borrowing278 Specific Hypotheses 1. Discourse marker > Case marker YES: Guaraní borrows Spanish Def Art, interpreted as TOPIC marker

Constraints on Borrowing279 Specific Hypotheses 1. Discourse marker > Case markerY 2. N > V > A

Constraints on Borrowing280 Specific Hypotheses 1. Discourse marker > Case markerY 2. N > V > A YES: for all 3 languages, but V & A type specific

Constraints on Borrowing281 Specific Hypotheses 1. Discourse marker > Case markerY 2. N > V > AY-T 3.a N > Adpos

Constraints on Borrowing282 Specific Hypotheses 1. Discourse marker > Case markerY 2. N > V > AY-T 3.a N > Adpos YES, but different for different language types

Constraints on Borrowing283 Specific Hypotheses 1. Discourse marker > Case markerY 2. N > V > AY-T 3.a N > AdposY-T 3.b Adpos > Aux > Article

Constraints on Borrowing284 Specific Hypotheses 1. Discourse marker > Case markerY 2. N > V > AY-T 3.a N > AdposY-T 3.b Adpos > Aux > Article Depends on type of language

Constraints on Borrowing285 Specific Hypotheses 1. Discourse marker > Case markerY 2. N > V > AY-T 3.a N > Adpos Y-T 3.b Adpos > Aux > Article T 4. Adpos > Case affix

Constraints on Borrowing286 Specific Hypotheses 1. Discourse marker > Case markerY 2. N > V > AY-T 3.a N > Adpos Y-T 3.b Adpos > Aux > Article T 4. Adpos > Case affix (YES, but case not relevant for Spanish)

Constraints on Borrowing287 Specific Hypotheses 1. Discourse marker > Case marker Y 2. N > V > AY-T 3.a N > Adpos Y-T 3.b Adpos > Aux > Article T 4. Adpos > Case affix- 5. No Preposition in Postpositional language

Constraints on Borrowing288 Specific Hypotheses 1. Discourse marker > Case markerY 2. N > V > AY-T 3.a N > Adpos Y-T 3.b Adpos > Aux > Article T 4. Adpos > Case affix- 5. No Preposition in Postpositional language YES, almost 100%

Constraints on Borrowing289 Specific Hypotheses 1. Discourse marker > Case markerY 2. N > V > AY-T 3.a N > Adpos Y-T 3.b Adpos > Aux > Article T 4. Adpos > Case affix- 5. No Prep in Post languageY-T

Constraints on Borrowing290 General observations

Constraints on Borrowing291 General observations 1. Simple borrowing hierarchies (N > V > A) do not work straightforwardly

Constraints on Borrowing292 General observations 1. Simple borrowing hierarchies (N > V > A) do not work straightforwardly 2. N is foremost, and continues over time

Constraints on Borrowing293 General observations 1. Simple borrowing hierarchies (N > V > A) do not work straightforwardly 2. N is foremost, and continues over time 3. Other lexical PoS depend on typology

Constraints on Borrowing294 General observations 1. Simple borrowing hierarchies (N > V > A) do not work straightforwardly 2. N is foremost, and continues over time 3. Other lexical PoS depend on typology 4. Adpos: function in target language + subcategorization in source language

Constraints on Borrowing295 General observations 1. Simple borrowing hierarchies (N > V > A) do not work straightforwardly 2. N is foremost, and continues over time 3. Other lexical PoS depend on typology 4. Adpos: function in target language + subcategorization in source language 5. Article: (re)interpreted as discourse marker

Constraints on Borrowing296 General observations 1. Simple borrowing hierarchies (N > V > A) do not work straightforwardly 2. N is foremost, and continues over time 3. Other lexical PoS depend on typology 4. Adpos: function in target language + subcategorization in source language 5. Article: (re)interpreted as discourse marker 6. Borrowing hierarchies should be refined on the basis of typological characteristics of the source and target language

Constraints on Borrowing297 Reference Bakker, D., J. Gómez-Rendón & E. Hekking (2008). ‘Spanish meets Guaraní, Otomí and Quichua: a multilingual confrontation’. In Th. Stolz, D. Bakker & R. Palomo (eds) Aspects of Language Contact. Mouton de Gruyter, Campbell, Lyle (1989). On proposed universals of grammatical borrowing. In Papers from the 9th international conference on historical linguistics, Henk Aertsen, and Robert J. Jeffers (eds), 91–109. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Dik, Simon C. (1997). The theory of functional grammar. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Moravcsik, Edith (1978). Universals of language contact. In Universals of language, Vol I, Method and theory, Joseph Greenberg (ed.), 95–122. USA: Stanford University Press. Thomason, Sarah G. (2001). Language contact. An introduction. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

Constraints on Borrowing298 ?