The geosphere is the solid part of Earth, which includes a thin layer of soil and broken rock material along with the underlying layers of rock.geosphere Minerals are naturally occurring, inorganic solids that have crystal structures and definite chemical compositions. Minerals The Geosphere

A rock is a naturally occurring solid composed of minerals and sometimes other materials such as organic matter.rock There are three major rock types: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. The Geosphere (cont.)

Igneous rocks form when molten material, called magma, cools and then hardens. Sedimentary rocks form when forces such as water, wind, and ice break down rocks into small pieces called sediment. Metamorphic rocks form when extreme temperatures and pressure within Earth change existing rocks into new rocks. The Geosphere (cont.)

The brittle, rocky, outer layer of Earth is called the crust. crust The crust is the least dense layer of the geosphere and much thinner than the other layers. Earth’s Layers

The crust under oceans is called oceanic crust and is made of dense rocks containing iron and magnesium.

Earth’s mantle is the thick middle layer in the solid part of Earth, immediately below the crust.mantle The rocks in the uppermost layer of the mantle are brittle and rigid. Earth’s Layers (cont.)

The dense metallic center of Earth is the core.core The core has a liquid outer core and a solid inner core and is mostly iron with small amounts of nickel and other elements.

Landforms are topographic features formed by processes that shape Earth’s surface. Landforms Scientists use the term topography to describe the shape of a geographic area. Many factors such as erosion or uplift of Earth’s surface can create and affect landforms. Landforms

Oceans cover more than 70 percent of Earth’s surface. Many of the features that appear on dry land also appear on the ocean floor. Oceans and Continents

A landform is usually identified by its surface form and location.

Scientists use the term elevation to describe the height above sea level of a particular feature. Relief is a term that scientists use to describe differences in elevation. Landforms (cont.)

Areas with high relief have a relatively large difference between the lowest elevation and the highest elevation.

United Stated Landforms

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mountain A mountain is a place on Earth’s surface that is much higher than the land around it.

Hill A hill is a raised area or mound of land.

valley A valley is a low area between higher lands such as mountains.

canyon A canyon is a deep valley with very steep sides.

plain A plain is a flat area on Earth’s surface.

plateau A plateau is a flat area higher than the land around it.

desert A desert is a dry place with little or no rain.

Peninsula A peninsula is a piece of land that is bordered on 3 sides by water

Isthmus An isthmus is a narrow strip of land that is bordered on two sides by water and connects two larger land masses.

island An island is land that has water all around it.

Archipelago An archipelago is a group or chain of islands clustered together in a sea or ocean

Barrier Islands A barrier island is a special island that protects the mainland coast from hurricanes.

coast A coast is the area where the ocean touches the land.

Wetlands A wetland is a area between an aquatic environment and a terrestrial environment. They are important to the ecosystem.

Sand Dunes A sand dune is a hill of sand created by wind or water flow. It may move or change shape often.

lake A lake is water that has land all around it.

river A river is a long flowing body of water.

Waterfall A waterfall is a place where a river falls off steeply.

Delta A delta is where the mouth of a river flows into an ocean, sea, lake or another river.

ocean An ocean is a large body of salt water that surrounds a continent. Oceans cover about 70% of Earth’s surface

Sea A sea is a large body of salty water that is often connected to an ocean. It may be partly or completely surrounded by land.

Bay A bay is an area of water bordered by land on 3 sides

Gulf A gulf is a part of the ocean or sea that is partly surrounded by land, usually larger than a bay.

Strait A strait is a narrow body of water that connects 2 larger bodies of water.

Fjord A fjord is a long narrow sea inlet that is bordered by steep cliffs.

Glacier A glacier is a large slowly moving mass of ice.

Aquifer An aquifer is an area of porous (holey) underground rock that can hold water.

Caverns A cavern is a cave or chamber in a cave.

Sinkhole A sinkhole is a cavity (hole) in the ground that is caused by erosion.