Section 1 – Postwar Turmoil

 Why were Sacco and Vanzetti found guilty of murder?  Many believed it was because they were immigrants and radicals (advocated political and social revolution).  They represented all the fears of the U.S. after WWI Could the radical politics of Russian Revolution overtake our country next?

 Some evidence linked them to the murders of a paymaster and shoe factory guard during a robbery.  Neither had ever been accused of a crime before  Trial was unfair  Judge continuously spoke negatively of them for their immigrant backgrounds and beliefs in anarchism (do not recognize authority of any government). Referred to them as “dagos” and worse  Judge refused motions for a new trial during 6 years they were in prison.  Foreman of the jury declared before the trial: “They ought to hang anyway.”

 Many protested the guilty verdict, here and worldwide, yet it stood.  Riots broke out all over the world when they were executed.  On August 23, 1977 (50 years after their execution), Massachusetts governor Michael Dukakis cleared their names, saying their trial had been “permeated with prejudice.”

 Red Scare = violent wave of anti-Communist panic that swept through the U.S. in 1919 and  Bolshevik Revolution in Russia and Communist uprisings in Hungary and Bavaria made it seem as though communism was spreading rapidly.  What about in the U.S.?  2 small Communist parties had formed Membership less than 70,000 members  WWI Committee on Public Information had stirred up public hatred of Germans. Transferred to anyone born in another country

 President Wilson’s attorney general, A. Mitchell Palmer, directed the Red Scare.  Truly believed Communists were about to take over our country!  On June 2, 1919 bombs exploded in 8 cities One shattered front of Palmer’s home Evidence suggested bomb thrower was Italian immigrant and anarchist.  Palmer asked for $500,000 from Congress to establish the General Intelligence division of the Justice Department’s Bureau of Investigation Began to gather information about domestic radical activities.

 November 1919: Palmer’s men raided the Union of Russian Workers in 12 cities  December 1919: 249 aliens deported to Russia  Most had never participated in any terrorist or criminal activity but favored nonviolent radical causes.  January 1920: Arrested more than 4,000 people in 33 cities  Many were U.S. citizens  Seized without warrants and denied attorneys  Deprived of food, water, heat, or bathroom facilities  One killed himself, two died of pneumonia, one went insane

 Some critics thought these acts were un- American but the public generally applauded the raids.  Most prisoners were eventually released because they had nothing to do with radical politics.  600 were expelled but the Dept of Labor halted the deportations.  By midsummer…the fear seemed to be over.  Raids and deportations had demoralized radicals.  Businesses had broken many strikes.  Bolshevism was NOT spreading beyond Russia.

 Outbreak of strikes  Cost of living had more than doubled since before the war, but wages lagged far behind.  Most disruptive strikes:  Seattle general strike, police strike in Boston, steel strike, coal strike

 Results of the strikes:  Massachusetts governor Calvin Coolidge said, “There is no right to strike against the public safety by anybody, anywhere, anytime.”  350,000 steelworkers worked 12-hour days, 7 days a week and were asking for one day of rest  Press portrayed them as radicals and dangerous  Steel owners provoked riots, broke up union meetings and hired police and soldiers to end the strike.  African Americans replaced striking workers  Did not get any of their demands  394,000 striking miners had to obey a presidential order to go back to work  None of their working conditions were improved

 All strikes of 1919 were portrayed as anti- American and a threat to the U.S.  People did not see the issues of long hours and poor working conditions.

 From half a million African Americans left the South for new jobs in the North.  Took jobs as meatpackers, metalworkers, and autoworkers – making more money than they did in the South.  Many northern whites were not happy with this and reacted violently.  Riots broke out all over the Northern cities  Wilson had to call in troops to control crowds in Washington D.C. riot

 Marcus Garvey arrived in NYC from Jamaica and found an enthusiastic audience for his version of Booker T. Washington’s ideas.  Encouraged African Americans to return to Africa “to establish a country and a government absolutely on their own.”  Founded Universal Negro Improvement Association African American pride and power, “Back to Africa” movement. Encouraged poor African Americans and gave them hope for the future  Deported as an undesirable alien, criticized by W.E.B. DuBois

 26 states passed laws limiting the sale of liquor.  Cities remained “wet” until national amendment  Wanted national Prohibition = ban on alcohol  Linked Prohibition with patriotism (conserving grain)  18 th Amendment ratified in 1919 and enforced by Volstead Act

 Volstead Act  Declared beverages containing one-half of 1% alcohol intoxicating  Hoped new law would reduce poverty and wipe out prostitution and crime

 Women’s struggle for voting rights got final push from war experience.  Progressives felt women’s votes could help pass many reforms.  Women got the right to vote in some states out West first Restrictions: could only vote for women candidates, for example

 Carrie Chapman Catt and the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA)  Less radical approach  Publicized women’s contributions to the war effort  Alice Paul and the National Woman’s Party  Radical actions  Picketing White House and going on hunger strikes when arrested

 Right to vote did NOT give women full equality  Could not serve on juries, hold office, enter business, or sign contracts without husband’s permission in many states.  Two out of three women failed to use their right to vote in the 1920 election!  Women did support the Sheppard-Towner Act  Provided funds for states to employ public health nurses, hold child-care conferences, and educate new mothers. (special working conditions for women unconstitutional)  1 st use of federal funds for welfare purposes.

 Even when progressive laws were passed, they were often overturned by the Supreme Court.  Especially child labor laws and minimum wages for women  Many reformers had lost faith in finding political solutions to social problems.  Brutality of WWI, turmoil of postwar years  Violent strikes and radical political ideas made many progressives fearful and side instead with big business.

Section 1: pt 2 The Republican Leadership

 See your notes on this section!  We discussed them in class…  The big idea is that these 3 Republican presidents all supported big business as a way to improve prosperity throughout the country.

Section 2-3: A Business boom

 Business became almost a religion and the successful businessperson attained the status of religious heroes.  Walter Chrysler named Time magazine’s Man of the Year in  59 people who “ruled” the U.S.: no elected officials, all businesspeople These men rule by virtue of their ability.  Businessmen praised for:  keeping government, business, families on their feet  Educating children, believing in justice & order, paying taxes, etc.

 Increased spending leads to larger profits for businesses, which in turn pushes up wages and encourages even more spending  Encouraged spending:  Buying on credit  Electricity (powered appliances)  Advertising  Rise in Productivity  Low prices / raise in wages

 U.S. was in position of collecting debts from war-torn Europe.  Had not been devastated by war  Productive capacity had expanded  Industrial productivity – the amount of goods each hour of labor produced – rose by 70%  GNP - Gross National Product - total value of goods and services a country produces annually  Measures productivity  Investors made fortunes, and ordinary workers made higher wages.

 New technology and techniques  Electrical motors powering majority of machines  Assembly line present in most industries (Henry Ford!)  Bigger and better offices required  New apartment buildings  Spreading suburban population  New roads and houses

 Light metals (like aluminum)  Synthetics  Motion picture production  Radio manufacturing  Automobile manufacturing  Ford was a hero  Assembled a car in 93 minutes  Completed car every 10 seconds  All provided new jobs and products

 Skyscrapers everywhere!  Empire State Building at 102 stories high was tallest building in the world.

 American business became big business  Small firms went out of business or were merged into larger companies/corporations.  They could not raise enough money to purchase the new technology or afford national advertising.  *Corporation = business owned by stockholders, whose personal rights and responsibilities are legally separate from the organization’s.

 From over 5,000 mergers joined firms together into large, powerful companies!  Is this always good for the consumer? Well…. Wait a second…I thought we had the FTC to protect small businesses and competition!

 Remember from the last section: Republican presidents (in this case, Coolidge) had appointed pro-business people to “regulate” business.  Under William Humphrey, the FTC actually encouraged mergers instead of prosecuting them!

 Most obvious examples:  Local utility companies merged into huge regional systems and utility empires. 3,700 local power companies became 10 major companies supplying electrical power to 72% of the country.  4 meatpackers  3 major baked goods companies  4 tobacco producers  Large banks  Chain stores like A&P These are oligopolies! (where a few major producers control an entire industry)

 Bigger businesses need more employees which requires more supervision  College-trained business managers began to replace company-trained general managers  Colleges increased their business schools  Harvard built 23 buildings for their Graduate School of Business Administration  Northwestern offered over 30 courses on business

 What was the impact of the Red Scare on the labor movement/union activities?  Huge blow  Big corporations will completely control the workforce in the 1920s.  The American Plan & Welfare Capitalism…

 A variety of activities used after the war to demoralize and destroy unions  Open-shop associations – employers stuck together in blacklisting union members  Employed spies to inform employers about labor organizers, discontent, etc.  “yellow-dog” contracts – employees agreed not to join a union (Supreme Court upheld)  Supreme Court ruled in favor of businesses in several key cases.

 Programs employers adopted to convince workers they didn’t need unions  Improved plant conditions  Hired company doctors and nurses  Provided activities like glee clubs and sports teams  Safety programs and group insurance  Some stock purchase opportunities and pension plans

 Although it did not end the inequalities between workers and employers, it did lead to a sharp decline in unions.  Seemed to keep workforce content  Used by companies to restore their public image after all of the muckraking  Idea of the 1920s: Humane businesses help out their employees and also act to serve society (public service). The businessman was no longer a profit-maker or even a bread-winner, he was a public servant.

Section 4: The Changing Nature of Work