© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Lectures by Edward J. Zalisko PowerPoint ® Lectures for Campbell Essential Biology, Fifth Edition, and Campbell Essential Biology with Physiology, Fourth Edition – Eric J. Simon, Jean L. Dickey, and Jane B. Reece Chapter 5 The Working Cell

Biology and Society: Harnessing Cellular Structures Cells control their chemical environment using –energy, –enzymes, and –the plasma membrane. Cell-based nanotechnology may be used to power microscopic robots. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 5.0

SOME BASIC ENERGY CONCEPTS Energy makes the world go around. But what is energy? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Conservation of Energy Energy is defined as the capacity to cause change. –Some forms of energy are used to perform work. –Energy is the ability to rearrange a collection of matter. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Conservation of Energy Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. Potential energy is stored energy. It is energy that an object has because of its –location or –structure. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 5.1 Climbing converts kinetic energy to potential energy. Greatest potential energy Diving converts potential energy to kinetic energy. Least potential energy

Machines and organisms can transform kinetic energy to potential energy and vice versa. In all such energy transformations, total energy is conserved. –Energy cannot be created or destroyed. –Energy can be converted from one form to another. –This is the principle of conservation of energy. Conservation of Energy © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Entropy Every energy conversion releases some randomized energy in the form of heat. Heat is a –type of kinetic energy and –product of all energy conversions. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Entropy Scientists use the term entropy as a measure of disorder, or randomness, in a system. All energy conversions increase the entropy of the universe. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chemical Energy Molecules store varying amounts of potential energy in the arrangement of their atoms. Organic compounds are relatively rich in such chemical energy. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chemical Energy Chemical energy –arises from the arrangement of atoms and –can be released by a chemical reaction. Living cells and automobile engines use the same basic process to make chemical energy do work. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 5.2 Fuel rich in chemical energy Energy conversion Waste products poor in chemical energy Oxygen Carbon dioxide Energy conversion in a car Energy for cellular work Energy conversion in a cell Heat energy Heat energy Carbon dioxide Oxygen Combustion Cellular respiration Kinetic energy of movement ATP Octane (from gasoline) Glucose (from food) Water

Cellular respiration is –the energy-releasing chemical breakdown of fuel molecules and –the storage of that energy in a form the cell can use to perform work. Chemical Energy © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Humans convert about 34% of the energy in food to useful work, such as the contraction of muscles. About 66% of the energy released by the breakdown of fuel molecules generates body heat. Chemical Energy © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Food Calories A calorie is the amount of energy that can raise the temperature of one gram of water by 1 degree Celsius. Food Calories are kilocalories, equal to 1,000 calories. The energy of calories in food is burned off by many activities. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 5.3 (a) Food Calories (kilocalories) in various foods (b) Food Calories (kilocalories) we burn in various activities Cheeseburger Spaghetti with sauce (1 cup) Pizza with pepperoni (1 slice) Peanuts (1 ounce) Apple Bean burrito Fried chicken (drumstick) Garden salad (2 cups) Popcorn (plain, 1 cup) Broccoli (1 cup) Baked potato (plain, with skin) Food CaloriesFood Activity Food Calories consumed per hour by a 150-pound person* Running (7min/mi) Sitting (writing) Driving a car Playing the piano Dancing (slow) Walking (3 mph) Bicycling (10 mph) Swimming (2 mph) Dancing (fast) *Not including energy necessary for basic functions, such as breathing and heartbeat

Figure 5.3a (a) Food Calories (kilocalories) in various foods Cheeseburger Spaghetti with sauce (1 cup) Pizza with pepperoni (1 slice) Peanuts (1 ounce) Apple Bean burrito Fried chicken (drumstick) Garden salad (2 cups) Popcorn (plain, 1 cup) Broccoli (1 cup) Baked potato (plain, with skin) Food Calories Food

Figure 5.3b (b) Food Calories (kilocalories) we burn in various activities Activity Food Calories consumed per hour by a 150-pound person* Running (7min/mi) Sitting (writing) Driving a car Playing the piano Dancing (slow) Walking (3 mph) Bicycling (10 mph) Swimming (2 mph) Dancing (fast) *Not including energy necessary for basic functions, such as breathing and heartbeat

ATP AND CELLULAR WORK Chemical energy is –released by the breakdown of organic molecules during cellular respiration and –used to generate molecules of ATP. ATP –acts like an energy shuttle, –stores energy obtained from food, and –releases it later as needed. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

The Structure of ATP ATP (adenosine triphosphate) –consists of an organic molecule called adenosine plus a tail of three phosphate groups and –is broken down to ADP and a phosphate group, releasing energy. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 5.4 Triphosphate Diphosphate Adenosine Energy ATPADP P PP P P P Phosphate (transferred to another molecule)

Phosphate Transfer ATP energizes other molecules by transferring phosphate groups. This energy helps cells perform –mechanical work, –transport work, and –chemical work. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 5.5a ATP ADP P P (a) Motor protein performing mechanical work (moving a muscle fiber) Protein moved Motor protein

Figure 5.5b ATP ADP P P P (b) Transport protein performing transport work (importing a solute) Solute Solute transported Transport protein

Figure 5.5c ATP ADP P P P X XY Y (c) Chemical reactants performing chemical work (promoting a chemical reaction) Product made Reactants

Figure 5.6 Cellular respiration: chemical energy harvested from fuel molecules Energy for cellular work ATP ADP P

The ATP Cycle Cellular work spends ATP continuously. ATP is recycled from ADP and a phosphate group through cellular respiration. A working muscle cell spends and recycles up to 10 million ATP molecules per second. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

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ENZYMES Metabolism is the total of all chemical reactions in an organism. Most metabolic reactions require the assistance of enzymes, proteins that speed up chemical reactions. All living cells contain thousands of different enzymes, each promoting a different chemical reaction. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Activation Energy Activation energy –activates the reactants and –triggers a chemical reaction. Enzymes reduce the amount of activation energy required to break bonds of reactant molecules. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 5.7 (a) Without enzyme (b) With enzyme Reactant Products Activation energy barrier Activation energy barrier reduced by enzyme Enzyme Energy

Figure 5.7a (a) Without enzyme Reactant Products Activation energy barrier Energy

Figure 5.7b (b) With enzyme Reactant Products Activation energy barrier reduced by enzyme Enzyme Energy

The Process of Science: Can Enzymes Be Engineered? Observation: Genetic sequences suggest that many of our genes were formed through a type of molecular evolution. Question: Can laboratory methods mimic this process through artificial selection? Hypothesis: An artificial process could be used to modify the gene that codes for lactase into a new gene coding for an enzyme with a new function. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Experiment: Using the process of directed evolution, many copies of the lactase gene were randomly mutated and tested for new activities. Results: Directed evolution produced a new enzyme with a novel function. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. The Process of Science: Can Enzymes Be Engineered?

Figure 5.8 Gene for lactase Mutated genes (mutations shown in orange) Mutated genes screened by testing new enzymes Gene duplicated and mutated at random Genes coding for enzymes that show new activity Genes coding for enzymes that do not show new activity Genes duplicated and mutated at random Mutated genes screened by testing new enzymes After seven rounds, some genes code for enzymes that can efficiently perform new activity. Ribbon model showing the polypeptide chains of the enzyme lactase

Figure 5.8a Gene for lactase Mutated genes (mutations shown in orange) Gene duplicated and mutated at random

Figure 5.8b Mutated genes screened by testing new enzymes Genes coding for enzymes that show new activity Genes coding for enzymes that do not show new activity Genes duplicated and mutated at random Mutated genes screened by testing new enzymes After seven rounds, some genes code for enzymes that can efficiently perform new activity.

Figure 5.8c Ribbon model showing the polypeptide chains of the enzyme lactase

Induced Fit An enzyme is very selective in the reaction it catalyzes. Each enzyme recognizes a substrate, a specific reactant molecule. –The active site fits to the substrate, and the enzyme changes shape slightly. –This interaction is called induced fit because the entry of the substrate induces the enzyme to change shape slightly. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Enzymes can function over and over again, a key characteristic of enzymes. Many enzymes are named for their substrates, but with an –ase ending. Induced Fit © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Animation: How Enzymes Work Right click slide / select “Play”

Figure Active site Enzyme (sucrase) Ready for substrate 1

Figure Active site Enzyme (sucrase) Ready for substrate Substrate (sucrose) Substrate binding 1 2

Figure Active site Enzyme (sucrase) Ready for substrate Substrate (sucrose) Substrate binding Catalysis H2OH2O 1 2 3

Figure Active site Enzyme (sucrase) Ready for substrate Substrate (sucrose) Substrate binding Catalysis H2OH2O Fructose Glucose Product released

Enzyme Inhibitors Enzyme inhibitors can prevent metabolic reactions by binding –to the active site or –near the active site, resulting in changes to the enzyme’s shape so that the active site no longer accepts the substrate. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 5.10 (a) Enzyme and substrate binding normally (b) Enzyme inhibition by a substrate imposter (c) Inhibition of an enzyme by a molecule that causes the active site to change shape Substrate Active site Inhibitor Enzyme

Figure 5.10a (a) Enzyme and substrate binding normally Substrate Enzyme Active site

Figure 5.10b (b) Enzyme inhibition by a substrate imposter Substrate Active site Inhibitor Enzyme

Figure 5.10c (c) Inhibition of an enzyme by a molecule that causes the active site to change shape Substrate Active site Inhibitor Enzyme

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Some products of a reaction may inhibit the enzyme required for its production. –This is called feedback regulation. –It prevents the cell from wasting resources. Many beneficial drugs work by inhibiting enzymes. –Penicillin blocks the active site of an enzyme that bacteria use in making cell walls. –Ibuprofen inhibits an enzyme involved in sending pain signals. –Many cancer drugs inhibit enzymes that promote cell division. Enzyme Inhibitors © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

MEMBRANE FUNCTION Cells must control the flow of materials to and from the environment. Membrane proteins perform many functions. Transport proteins –are located in membranes and –help move substances across a cell membrane. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 5.11 Cell signaling Attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix Enzymatic activity Cytoskeleton Cytoplasm Transport Fibers of extracellular matrix Intercellular joining Cell-cell recognition

Passive Transport: Diffusion across Membranes Molecules contain heat energy that causes them to vibrate and wander randomly. Diffusion is the movement of molecules so that they spread out evenly into the available space. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Passive transport is the diffusion of a substance across a membrane without the input of energy. Cell membranes are selectively permeable, allowing only certain substances to pass. Substances diffuse down their concentration gradient, a region in which the substance’s density changes. Passive Transport: Diffusion across Membranes © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 5.12 Molecules of dye Membrane (a) Passive transport of one type of molecule (b) Passive transport of two types of molecules Net diffusion Equilibrium Net diffusion Equilibrium Net diffusion Equilibrium

Figure 5.12a Molecules of dyeMembrane (a) Passive transport of one type of molecule Net diffusion Equilibrium

Figure 5.12b (b) Passive transport of two types of molecules Net diffusion Equilibrium Net diffusion Equilibrium

Some substances do not cross membranes spontaneously or cross slowly. –These substances can be transported via facilitated diffusion. –Specific transport proteins act as selective corridors. –No energy input is needed. Passive Transport: Diffusion across Membranes © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Osmosis and Water Balance The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane is osmosis. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure Hypotonic solution Hypertonic solution Sugar molecule Selectively permeable membrane Osmosis

Figure Hypotonic solution Hypertonic solution Sugar molecule Selectively permeable membrane Osmosis Isotonic solutions Osmosis

Compared to another solution, –a hypertonic solution has a higher concentration of solute, –a hypotonic solution has a lower concentration of solute, and –an isotonic solution has an equal concentration of solute. Osmosis and Water Balance © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

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Osmoregulation is the control of water balance within a cell or organism. Water Balance in Animal Cells © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Plants have rigid cell walls. Plant cells are healthiest in a hypotonic environment, which keeps their walled cells turgid. Water Balance in Plant Cells © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 5.14 Animal cell Plant cell Normal Flaccid (wilts) Lysing Turgid (normal) Shriveled Plasma membrane H2OH2O H2OH2O H2OH2OH2OH2O H2OH2O H2OH2O H2OH2O H2OH2O (a) Isotonic solution (b) Hypotonic solution (c) Hypertonic solution

Figure 5.14a Animal cell Plant cell Normal Flaccid (wilts) H2OH2O H2OH2O H2OH2O H2OH2O (a) Isotonic solution

Figure 5.14b Lysing Turgid (normal) H2OH2O H2OH2O (b) Hypotonic solution

Figure 5.14c Shriveled Plasma membrane H2OH2O H2OH2O (c) Hypertonic solution

As a plant cell loses water, –it shrivels and –its plasma membrane may pull away from the cell wall in the process of plasmolysis, which usually kills the cell. Water Balance in Plant Cells © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 5.15

Active Transport: The Pumping of Molecules across Membranes Active transport requires that a cell expend energy to move molecules across a membrane. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure Lower solute concentration Higher solute concentration ATP Solute Active transport

Figure Lower solute concentration Higher solute concentration ATP Solute Active transport

Exocytosis and Endocytosis: Traffic of Large Molecules Exocytosis is the secretion of large molecules within transport vesicles. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 5.17 Outside of cell Cytoplasm Plasma membrane Exocytosis

Endocytosis takes material in via vesicles that bud inward from the plasma membrane. Exocytosis and Endocytosis: Traffic of Large Molecules © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 5.18 Endocytosis

In the process of phagocytosis (“cellular eating”), a cell engulfs a particle and packages it within a food vacuole. Other times a cell “gulps” droplets of fluid into vesicles. Endocytosis can also be triggered by the binding of certain external molecules to specific receptor proteins built into the plasma membrane. Exocytosis and Endocytosis: Traffic of Large Molecules © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

The plasma membrane helps convey signals –between cells and –between cells and their environment. Receptors on a cell surface trigger signal transduction pathways that –relay the signal and –convert it to chemical forms that can function within the cell. The Role of Membranes in Cell Signaling © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 5.19 Outside of cell Cytoplasm Reception TransductionResponse Receptor protein Epinephrine (adrenaline) from adrenal glands Plasma membrane Proteins of signal transduction pathway Hydrolysis of glycogen releases glucose for energy

Evolution Connection: The Origin of Membranes Phospholipids –are key ingredients of membranes, –were probably among the first organic compounds that formed from chemical reactions on early Earth, and –self-assemble into simple membranes. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 5.20 Water-filled bubble made of phospholipids

Figure 5.UN01 Energy for cellular work Adenosine diphosphate Energy from organic fuel Phosphate (can be transferred to another molecule) ATP cycle ATP ADP PPPPP P Adenosine triphosphate

Figure 5.UN02 Reactant Products Enzyme added Activation energy

Figure 5.UN03 Passive Transport (requires no energy) Active Transport (requires energy) DiffusionFacilitated diffusionOsmosis Higher solute concentration Lower solute concentration Higher water concentration (lower solute concentration) Lower water concentration (higher solute concentration) Solute Higher solute concentration Lower solute concentration ATP Solute Water Solute MEMBRANE TRANSPORT

Figure 5.UN04 ExocytosisEndocytosis